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cratylus-第15部分

小说: cratylus 字数: 每页4000字

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perfected; though in no language did they completely perfect themselves;

because for some unknown reason the motive powers of languages seem to have

ceased when they were on the eve of completion:  they became fixed or

crystallized in an imperfect form either from the influence of writing and

literature; or because no further differentiation of them was required for

the intelligibility of language。  So not without admixture and confusion

and displacement and contamination of sounds and the meanings of words; a

lower stage of language passes into a higher。  Thus far we can see and no

further。  When we ask the reason why this principle of analogy prevails in

all the vast domain of language; there is no answer to the question; or no

other answer but this; that there are innumerable ways in which; like

number; analogy permeates; not only language; but the whole world; both

visible and intellectual。  We know from experience that it does not (a)

arise from any conscious act of reflection that the accusative of a Latin

noun in 'us' should end in 'um;' nor (b) from any necessity of being

understood;much less articulation would suffice for this; nor (c) from

greater convenience or expressiveness of particular sounds。  Such notions

were certainly far enough away from the mind of primitive man。  We may

speak of a latent instinct; of a survival of the fittest; easiest; most

euphonic; most economical of breath; in the case of one of two competing

sounds; but these expressions do not add anything to our knowledge。  We may

try to grasp the infinity of language either under the figure of a

limitless plain divided into countries and districts by natural boundaries;

or of a vast river eternally flowing whose origin is concealed from us; we

may apprehend partially the laws by which speech is regulated:  but we do

not know; and we seem as if we should never know; any more than in the

parallel case of the origin of species; how vocal sounds received life and

grew; and in the form of languages came to be distributed over the earth。



iii。  Next in order to analogy in the formation of language or even prior

to it comes the principle of onomatopea; which is itself a kind of analogy

or similarity of sound and meaning。  In by far the greater number of words

it has become disguised and has disappeared; but in no stage of language is

it entirely lost。  It belongs chiefly to early language; in which words

were few; and its influence grew less and less as time went on。  To the ear

which had a sense of harmony it became a barbarism which disturbed the flow

and equilibrium of discourse; it was an excrescence which had to be cut

out; a survival which needed to be got rid of; because it was out of

keeping with the rest。  It remained for the most part only as a formative

principle; which used words and letters not as crude imitations of other

natural sounds; but as symbols of ideas which were naturally associated

with them。  It received in another way a new character; it affected not so

much single words; as larger portions of human speech。  It regulated the

juxtaposition of sounds and the cadence of sentences。  It was the music;

not of song; but of speech; in prose as well as verse。  The old onomatopea

of primitive language was refined into an onomatopea of a higher kind; in

which it is no longer true to say that a particular sound corresponds to a

motion or action of man or beast or movement of nature; but that in all the

higher uses of language the sound is the echo of the sense; especially in

poetry; in which beauty and expressiveness are given to human thoughts by

the harmonious composition of the words; syllables; letters; accents;

quantities; rhythms; rhymes; varieties and contrasts of all sorts。  The

poet with his 'Break; break; break' or his e pasin nekuessi

kataphthimenoisin anassein or his 'longius ex altoque sinum trahit;' can

produce a far finer music than any crude imitations of things or actions in

sound; although a letter or two having this imitative power may be a lesser

element of beauty in such passages。  The same subtle sensibility; which

adapts the word to the thing; adapts the sentence or cadence to the general

meaning or spirit of the passage。  This is the higher onomatopea which has

banished the cruder sort as unworthy to have a place in great languages and

literatures。



We can see clearly enough that letters or collocations of letters do by

various degrees of strength or weakness; length or shortness; emphasis or

pitch; become the natural expressions of the finer parts of human feeling

or thought。  And not only so; but letters themselves have a significance;

as Plato observes that the letter rho accent is expressive of motion; the

letters delta and tau of binding and rest; the letter lambda of smoothness;

nu of inwardness; the letter eta of length; the letter omicron of

roundness。  These were often combined so as to form composite notions; as

for example in tromos (trembling); trachus (rugged); thrauein (crush);

krouein (strike); thruptein (break); pumbein (whirl);in all which words

we notice a parallel composition of sounds in their English equivalents。 

Plato also remarks; as we remark; that the onomatopoetic principle is far

from prevailing uniformly; and further that no explanation of language

consistently corresponds with any system of philosophy; however great may

be the light which language throws upon the nature of the mind。  Both in

Greek and English we find groups of words such as string; swing; sling;

spring; sting; which are parallel to one another and may be said to derive

their vocal effect partly from contrast of letters; but in which it is

impossible to assign a precise amount of meaning to each of the expressive

and onomatopoetic letters。  A few of them are directly imitative; as for

example the omega in oon; which represents the round form of the egg by the

figure of the mouth:  or bronte (thunder); in which the fulness of the

sound of the word corresponds to the thing signified by it; or bombos

(buzzing); of which the first syllable; as in its English equivalent; has

the meaning of a deep sound。  We may observe also (as we see in the case of

the poor stammerer) that speech has the co…operation of the whole body and

may be often assisted or half expressed by gesticulation。  A sound or word

is not the work of the vocal organs only; nearly the whole of the upper

part of the human frame; including head; chest; lungs; have a share in

creating it; and it may be accompanied by a movement of the eyes; nose;

fingers; hands; feet which contributes to the effect of it。



The principle of onomatopea has fallen into discredit; partly because it

has been supposed to imply an actual manufacture of words out of syllables

and letters; like a piece of joiner's work;a theory of language which is

more and more refuted by facts; and more and more going out of fashion with

philologians; and partly also because the traces of onomatopea in separate

words become almost obliterated in the course of ages。  The poet of

language cannot put in and pull out letters; as a painter might insert or

blot out a shade of colour to give effect to his picture。  It would be

ridiculous for him to alter any received form of a word in order to render

it more expressive of the sense。  He can only select; perhaps out of some

dialect; the form which is already best adapted to his purpose。  The true

onomatopea is not a creative; but a formative principle; which in the later

stage of the history of language ceases to act upon individual words; but

still works through the collocation of them in the sentence or paragraph;

and the adaptation of every word; syllable; letter to one another and to

the rhythm of the whole passage。



iv。  Next; under a distinct head; although not separable from the

preceding; may be considered the differentiation of languages; i。e。 the

manner in which differences of meaning and form have arisen in them。  Into

their first creation we have ceased to enquire:  it is their aftergrowth

with which we are now concerned。  How did the roots or substantial portions

of words become modified or inflected? and how did they receive separate

meanings?  First we remark that words are attracted by the sounds and

senses of other words; so that they form groups of nouns and verbs

analogous in sound and sense to one another; each noun or verb putting

forth inflexions; generally of two or three patterns; and with exceptions。 

We do not say that we know how sense became first allied to sound; but we

have no difficulty in ascertaining how the sounds and meanings of words

were in time parted off or differentiated。  (1) The chief causes which

regulate the variations of sound are (a) double or differing analogies;

which lead sometimes to one form; sometimes to another (b) euphony; by

which is meant chiefly the greater pleasure to the ear and the greater

facility to the organs of speech which is given by a new formation or

pronunciation of a word (c) the necessity of finding new expressions for

new classes or processes of things。  We are told that changes of sound take

place by innumerable gradations until a whole tribe or community or society

find themselves acquiescing in a new pronunciation or use of language。  Yet

no one observes the change; or is at all aware that in the course of a

lifetime he and his contemporaries have appreciably varied their intonation

or use of words。  On the other hand; the necessities of language seem to

require that the intermediate sounds or meanings of words should quickly

become fixed or set and not continue in a state of transition。  The process

of settling down is aided by the organs of speech and by the use of writing

and printing。  (2) The meaning of words varies because ideas vary or the

number of things which is included under them or with which they are

associated is increased。  A single word is thus made to do duty for many

mor

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