what is property-第14部分

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tions　know　no　qualifications　in　their　choice　of　officers　save　virtues　and　talents。〃

They　certainly　ought　to　have　admired　so　beautiful　an　idea：　they　admired　a　piece　of　nonsense。　　Why！　the　sovereign　people；　legislators；　and　reformers；　see　in　public　offices；　to　speak　plainly；　only　opportunities　for　pecuniary　advancement。　　And；　because　it　regards　them　as　a　source　of　profit；　it　decrees　the　eligibility　of　citizens。　　For　of　what　use　would　this　precaution　be；　if　there　were　nothing　to　gain　by　it？　　No　one　would　think　of　ordaining　that　none　but　astronomers　and　geographers　should　be　pilots；　nor　of　prohibiting　stutterers　from　acting　at　the　theatre　and　the　opera。　　The　nation　was　still　aping　the　kings：　like　them　it　wished　to　award　the　lucrative　positions　to　its　friends　and　flatterers。　　Unfortunately；　and　this　last　feature　completes　the　resemblance；　the　nation　did　not　control　the　list　of　livings；　that　was　in　the　hands　of　its　agents　and　representatives。　　They；　on　the　other　hand；　took　care　not　to　thwart　the　will　of　their　gracious　sovereign。

This　edifying　article　of　the　Declaration　of　Rights；　retained　in　the　charters　of　1814　and　1830；　implies　several　kinds　of　civil　inequality；　that　is；　of　inequality　before　the　law：　inequality　ofstation；　since　the　public　functions　are　sought　only　for　the　consideration　and　emoluments　which　they　bring；　inequality　of　wealth；　since；　if　it　had　been　desired　to　equalize　fortunes；　public　service　would　have　been　regarded　as　a　duty；　not　as　a　reward；　inequality　of　privilege；　the　law　not　stating　what　it　means　by　TALENTS　and　VIRTUES。　　Under　the　empire；　virtue　and　talent　consisted　simply　in　military　bravery　and　devotion　to　the　emperor；　that　was　shown　when　Napoleon　created　his　nobility；　and　attempted　to　connect　it　with　the　ancients。　　To…day；　the　man　who　pays　taxes　to　the　amount　of　two　hundred　francs　is　virtuous；　the　talented　man　is　the　honest　pickpocket：　such　truths　as　these　are　accounted　trivial。

The　people　finally　legalized　property。　　God　forgive　them；　for　they　knew　not　what　they　did！　　For　fifty　years　they　have　suffered　for　their　miserable　folly。　　But　how　came　the　people；　whose　voice；　they　tell　us；　is　the　voice　of　God；　and　whose　conscience　is　infallible；how　came　the　people　to　err？　　How　happens　it　that；　when　seeking　liberty　and　equality；　they　fell　back　into　privilege　and　slavery？　　Always　through　copying　the　ancient　regime。

Formerly；　the　nobility　and　the　clergy　contributed　towards　the　expenses　of　the　State　only　by　voluntary　aid　and　gratuitous　gift；　their　property　could　not　be　seized　even　for　debt；while　the　plebeian；　overwhelmed　by　taxes　and　statute…labor；　was　continually　tormented；　now　by　the　king's　tax…gatherers；　now　by　those　of　the　nobles　and　clergy。　　He　whose　possessions　were　subject　to　mortmain　could　neither　bequeath　nor　inherit　property；　he　was　treated　like　the　animals；　whose　services　and　offspring　belong　to　their　master　by　right　of　accession。　　The　people　wanted　the　conditions　of　OWNERSHIP　to　be　alike　for　all；　they　thought　that　every　one　should　ENJOY　AND　FREELY　DISPOSE　OF　HIS　POSSESSIONS　HIS　INCOME　AND　THE　FRUIT　OF　HIS　LABOR　AND　INDUSTRY。　　The　people　did　not　invent　property；　but　as　they　had　not　the　same　privileges　in　regard　to　it；　which　the　nobles　and　clergy　possessed；　they　decreed　that　the　right　should　be　exercised　by　all　under　the　same　conditions。　　The　more　obnoxious　forms　of　propertystatute…labor；　mortmain；　maitrise；　and　exclusion　from　public　officehave　disappeared；　the　conditions　of　its　enjoyment　have　been　modified：　the　principle　still　remains　the　same。　　There　has　been　progress　in　the　regulation　of　the　right；　there　has　been　no　revolution。

These；　then；　are　the　three　fundamental　principles　of　modern　society；　established　one　after　another　by　the　movements　of　1789　and　1830：　　1。　SOVEREIGNTY　OF　THE　HUMAN　WILL；　in　short；　DESPOTISM。　　2。　INEQUALITY　OF　WEALTH　AND　RANK。　　3。　PROPERTY　above　JUSTICE；　always　invoked　as　the　guardian　angel　of　sovereigns；　nobles；　and　proprietors；　JUSTICE；　the　general；　primitive；　categorical　law　of　all　society。

We　must　ascertain　whether　the　ideas　of　DESPOTISM；　CIVIL　INEQUALITY　and　PROPERTY；　are　in　harmony　with　the　primitive　notion　of　JUSTICE；　and　necessarily　follow　from　it；assuming　various　forms　according　to　the　condition；　position；　and　relation　of　persons；　or　whether　they　are　not　rather　the　illegitimate　result　of　a　confusion　of　different　things；　a　fatal　association　of　ideas。　　And　since　justice　deals　especially　with　the　questions　of　government；　the　condition　of　persons；　and　the　possession　of　things；　we　must　ascertain　under　what　conditions；　judging　by　universal　opinion　and　the　progress　of　the　human　mind；　government　is　just；　the　condition　of　citizens　is　just；　and　the　possession　of　things　is　just；　then；　striking　out　every　thing　which　fails　to　meet　these　conditions；　the　result　will　at　once　tell　us　what　legitimate　government　is；　what　the　legitimate　condition　of　citizens　is；　and　what　the　legitimate　possession　of　things　is；　and　finally；　as　the　last　result　of　the　analysis；　what　JUSTICE　is。

Is　the　authority　of　man　over　man　just？

Everybody　answers；　〃No；　the　authority　of　man　is　only　the　authority　of　the　law；　which　ought　to　be　justice　and　truth。〃　　The　private　will　counts　for　nothing　in　government；　which　consists；　first；　in　discovering　truth　and　justice　in　order　to　make　the　law；　and；　second；　in　superintending　the　execution　of　this　law。　　I　do　not　now　inquire　whether　our　constitutional　form　of　government　satisfies　these　conditions；　whether；　for　example；　the　will　of　the　ministry　never　influences　the　declaration　and　interpretation　of　the　law；　or　whether　our　deputies；　in　their　debates；　are　more　intent　on　conquering　by　argument　than　by　force　of　numbers：　it　is　enough　for　me　that　my　definition　of　a　good　government　is　allowed　to　be　correct。　　This　idea　is　exact。　　Yet　we　see　that　nothing　seems　more　just　to　the　Oriental　nations　than　the　despotism　of　their　sovereigns；　that；　with　the　ancients　and　in　the　opinion　of　the　philosophers　themselves；　slavery　was　just；　that　in　the　middle　ages　the　nobles；　the　priests；　and　the　bishops　felt　justified　in　holding　slaves；　that　Louis　XIV。　thought　that　he　was　right　when　he　said；　〃The　State！　　I　am　the　State；〃　and　that　Napoleon　deemed　it　a　crime　for　the　State　to　oppose　his　will。　　The　idea　of　justice；　then；　applied　to　sovereignty　and　government；　has　not　always　been　what　it　is　to…day；　it　has　gone　on　developing　and　shaping　itself　by　degrees；　until　it　has　arrived　at　its　present　state。　　But　has

it　reached　its　last　phase？　　I　think　not：　only；　as　the　last　obstacle　to　be　overcome　arises　from　the　institution　of　property　which　we　have　kept　intact；　in　order　to　finish　the　reform　in　government　and　consummate　the　revolution；　this　very　institution　we　must　attack。

Is　political　and　civil　inequality　just？

Some　say　yes；　others　no。　　To　the　first　I　would　reply　that；　when　the　people　abolished　all　privileges　of　birth　and　caste；　they　did　it；　in　all　probability；　because　it　was　for　their　advantage；　why　then　do　they　favor　the　privileges　of　fortune　more　than　those　of　rank　and　race？　　Because；　say　they；　political　inequality　is　a　result　of　property；　and　without　property　society　is　impossible：　thus　the　question　just　raised　becomes　a　question　of　property。　　To　the　second　I　content　myself　with　this　remark：　　If　you　wish　to　enjoy　political　equality；　abolish　property；　otherwise；　why　do　you　complain？

Is　property　just？

Everybody　answers　without　hesitation；　〃Yes；　property　is　just。〃　　I　say　everybody；　for　up　to　the　present　time　no　one　who　thoroughly　understood　the　meaning　of　his　words　has　answered　no。　　For　it　is　no　easy　thing　to　reply　understandingly　to　such　a　question；　only　time　and　experience　can　furnish　an　answer。　　Now；　this　answer　is　given；　it　is　for　us　to　understand　it。　　I　undertake　to　prove　it。

We　are　to　proceed　with　the　demonstration　in　the　following　order：

I。　We　dispute　not　at　all；　we　refute　nobody；　we　deny　nothing；　we　accept　as　sound　all　the　arguments　alleged　in　favor　of　property；　and　confine　ourselves　to　a　search　for　its　principle；　in　order　that　we　may　then　ascertain　whether　this　principle　is　faithfully　expressed　by　property。　　In　fact；　property　being　defensible　on　no　ground　save　that　of　justice；　the　idea；　or　at　least　the　intention；　of　justice　must　of　necessity　underlie　all　the　arguments　that　have　been　made　in　defence　of　property；　and；　as　on　the　other　hand　the　right　of　property　is　only　exercised　over　those　things　which　can　be　appreciated　by　the　senses；　justice；　secretly　objectifying　itself；　so　to　speak；　must　take　the　shape　of　an　algebraic　formula。

By　this　method　of　investigation；　we　soon　see　that　every　argument　which　has　been　invented　in　behalf　of　property；　WHATEVER　IT　MAY　BE；　always　and　of　necessity　leads　to　equality；　that　is；　to　the　negation　of　property。

The　first　part　covers　two　chapters：　one　treating　of　occupation；　the　foundation　of　our　right；　the　other；　of　labor　and　talent；　considered　as　causes　of　property　and　social　inequality。

The　first　of　these　chapters　will　prove　that　the　right　of　occupation　OBSTRUCTS　property；　the　second　that　the　right　of　labor　DESTROYS　it。

II。　Property；　then；　being　of　necessity　conceived　as　existing　only　in　connection　with　equality；　it　remains　to　find　out　why；　in　spite　of　this　necessity　of　logic；　equality　does　not　exist。　　This　new　investigation　also　covers　two　chapters：　in　the　first；　considering　the　fact　of　property　in　itself；　we　inquire　whether　this　fact　is　real；　whether　it　exists；　whether　it　is　possible；　for　it　would　imply　a　contradiction；　were　these　two　opposite　forms　of　society；　equality　and　inequality；　both　possible。　　Then　we　discover；　singularly　enough；　that　property　may　indeed　manifest　itself　accidentally；　but　that；　as　an　institution　and　principle；　it　is　mathematically　impossible。　　So　that　the　axiom　of　the　schoolab　actu　ad　posse　valet　consecutio：　from　the　actual　to　the　possible　the　inference　is　goodis　given　the　lie　as　far　as　property　is　concerned。

Finally；　in　the　last　chapter；　calling　psychology　to　our　aid；　and　probing　man's　nature　to　the　bottom；　we　shall　disclose　the　principle　of　JUSTICEits　formula　and　character；　we　shall　state　with　precision　the　organic　law　of　society；　we　shall　explain　the　origin　of　property；　the　causes　of　its　establishment；　its　long　life；　and　its　approaching　death；　we　shall　definitively　establish　its　identity　with　robbery。　　And；　after　h