what is property-第66部分

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art。　　Accordingly；　property；　which　this　legislator　wrongly　confounded　with　wealth；　reentered　the　city　together　with　the　swarm　of　evils　which　he　was　endeavoring　to　banish；　and　this　time　Sparta　was　hopelessly　corrupted。


〃The　introduction　of　wealth；〃　says　M。　Pastoret；　〃was　one　of　the　principal　causes　of　the　misfortunes　which　they　experienced。　　Against　these；　however；　the　laws　had　taken　extraordinary　precautions；　the　best　among　which　was　the　inculcation　of　morals　which　tended　to　suppress　desire。〃


The　best　of　all　precautions　would　have　been　the　anticipation　of　desire　by　satisfaction。　　Possession　is　the　sovereign　remedy　for　cupidity；　a　remedy　which　would　have　been　the　less　perilous　to　Sparta　because　fortunes　there　were　almost　equal；　and　conditions　were　nearly　alike。　　As　a　general　thing；　fasting　and　abstinence　are　bad　teachers　of　moderation。

〃There　was　a　law；〃　says　M。　Pastoret　again；　〃to　prohibit　the　rich　from　wearing　better　clothing　than　the　poor；　from　eating　more　delicate　food；　and　from　owning　elegant　furniture；　vases；　carpets；　fine　houses；〃　&c。　　Lycurgus　hoped；　then；　to　maintain　equality　by　rendering　wealth　useless。　　How　much　wiser　he　would　have　been　if；　in　accordance　with　his　military　discipline；　he　had　organized　industry　and　taught　the　people　to　procure　by　their　own　labor　the　things　which　he　tried　in　vain　to　deprive　them　of。　　In　that　case；　enjoying　happy　thoughts　and　pleasant　feelings；　the　citizen　would　have　known　no　other　desire　than　that　with　which　the　legislator　endeavored　to　inspire　him；love　of　honor　and　glory；　the　triumphs　of　talent　and　virtue。

〃Gold　and　all　kinds　of　ornaments　were　forbidden　the　women。〃　　Absurd。　　After　the　death　of　Lycurgus；　his　institutions　became　corrupted；　and　four　centuries　before　the　Christian　era　not　a　vestige　remained　of　the　former　simplicity。　　Luxury　and　the　thirst　for　gold　were　early　developed　among　the　Spartans　in　a　degree　as　intense　as　might　have　been　expected　from　their　enforced　poverty　and　their　inexperience　in　the　arts。　　Historians　have　accused　Pausanias；　Lysander；　Agesilaus；　and　others　of　having　corrupted　the　morals　of　their　country　by　the　introduction　of　wealth　obtained　in　war。　　It　is　a　slander。　　The　morals　of　the　Spartans　necessarily　grew　corrupt　as　soon　as　the　Lacedaemonian　poverty　came　in　contact　with　Persian　luxury　and　Athenian　elegance。　　Lycurgus；　then；　made　a　fatal　mistake　in　attempting　to　inspire　generosity　and　modesty　by　enforcing　vain　and　proud　simplicity。


〃Lycurgus　was　not　frightened　at　idleness！　　A　Lacedemonian；　happening　to　be　in　Athens　（where　idleness　was　forbidden）　during　the　punishment　of　a　citizen　who　had　been　found　guilty；　asked　to　see　the　Athenian　thus　condemned　for　having　exercised　the　rights　of　a　free　man。　。　。　。　　It　was　one　of　the　principles　of　Lycurguss；　acted　upon　for　several　centuries；　that　free　men　should　not　follow　lucrative　professions。　。　。　。　　The　women　disdained　domestic　labor；　they　did　not　spin　their　wool　themselves；　as　did　the　other　Greeks　＇they　did　not；　then；　read　Homer！＇；　they　left　their　slaves　to　make　their　clothing　for　them。〃Pastoret：　　History　of　Legislation。


Could　any　thing　be　more　contradictory？　　Lycurgus　proscribed　property　among　the　citizens；　and　founded　the　means　of　subsistence　on　the　worst　form　of　property；on　property　obtained　by　force。　　What　wonder；　after　that；　that　a　lazy　city；　where　no　industry　was　carried　on；　became　a　den　of　avarice？　　The　Spartans　succumbed　the　more　easily　to　the　allurements　of　luxury　and　Asiatic　voluptuousness；　being　placed　entirely　at　their　mercy　by　their　own　coarseness。　　The　same　thing　happened　to　the　Romans；　when　military　success　took　them　out　of　Italy；a　thing　which　the　author　of　the　prosopopoeia　of　Fabricius　could　not　explain。　　It　is　not　the　cultivation　of　the　arts　which　corrupts　morals；　but　their　degradation；　induced　by　inactive　and　luxurious　opulence。　　The　instinct　of　property　is　to　make　the　industry　of　Daedalus；　as　well　as　the　talent　of　Phidias；　subservient　to　its　own　fantastic　whims　and　disgraceful　pleasures。　　Property；　not　wealth；　ruined　the　Spartans。

When　Solon　appeared；　the　anarchy　caused　by　property　was　at　its　height　in　the　Athenian　republic。　　〃The　inhabitants　of　Attica　were　divided　among　themselves　as　to　the　form　of　government。　　Those　who　lived　on　the　mountains　（the　poor）　preferred　the　popular　form；　those　of　the　plain　（the　middle　class）；　the　oligarchs；　those　by　the　sea　coast；　a　mixture　of　oligarchy　and　democracy。　　Other　dissensions　were　arising　from　the　inequality　of　fortunes。　　The　mutual　antagonism　of　the　rich　and　poor　had　become　so　violent；　that　the　one…man　power　seemed　the　only　safe…guard　against　the　revolution　with　which　the　republic　was　threatened。〃　　（Pastoret：　　History　of　Legislation。）

Quarrels　between　the　rich　and　the　poor；　which　seldom　occur　in　monarchies；　because　a　well　established　power　suppresses　dissensions；　seem　to　be　the　life　of　popular　governments。　　Aristotle　had　noticed　this。　　The　oppression　of　wealth　submitted　to　agrarian　laws；　or　to　excessive　taxation；　the　hatred　of　the　lower　classes　for　the　upper　class；　which　is　exposed　always　to　libellous　charges　made　in　hopes　of　confiscation；these　were　the　features　of　the　Athenian　government　which　were　especially　revolting　to　Aristotle；　and　which　caused　him　to　favor　a　limited　monarchy。　　Aristotle；　if　he　had　lived　in　our　day；　would　have　supported　the　constitutional　government。　　But；　with　all　deference　to　the　Stagirite；　a　government　which　sacrifices　the　life　of　the　proletaire　to　that　of　the　proprietor　is　quite　as　irrational　as　one　which　supports　the　former　by　robbing　the　latter；　neither　of　them　deserve　the　support　of　a　free　man；　much　less　of　a　philosopher。

Solon　followed　the　example　of　Lycurgus。　　He　celebrated　his　legislative　inauguration　by　the　abolition　of　debts；that　is；　by　bankruptcy。　　In　other　words；　Solon　wound　up　the　governmental　machine　for　a　longer　or　shorter　time　depending　upon　the　rate　of　interest。　　Consequently；　when　the　spring　relaxed　and　the　chain　became　unwound；　the　republic　had　either　to　perish；　or　to　recover　itself　by　a　second　bankruptcy。　　This　singular　policy　was　pursued　by　all　the　ancients。　　After　the　captivity　of　Babylon；　Nehemiah；　the　chief　of　the　Jewish　nation；　abolished　debts；　Lycurgus　abolished　debts；　Solon　abolished　debts；　the　Roman　people；　after　the　expulsion　of　the　kings　until　the　accession　of　the　Caesars；　struggled　with　the　Senate　for　the　abolition　of　debts。　　Afterwards；　towards　the　end　of　the　republic；　and　long　after　the　establishment　of　the　empire；　agriculture　being　abandoned；　and　the　provinces　becoming　depopulated　in　consequence　of　the　excessive　rates　of　interest；　the　emperors　freely　granted　the　lands　to　whoever　would　cultivate　them；that　is；　they　abolished　debts。　　No　one；　except　Lycurgus；　who　went　to　the　other　extreme；　ever　perceived　that　the　great　point　was；　not　to　release　debtors　by　a　coup　d'etat；　but　to　prevent　the　contraction　of　debts　in　future。

On　the　contrary；　the　most　democratic　governments　were　always　exclusively　based　upon　individual　property；　so　that　the　social　element　of　all　these　republics　was　war　between　the　citizens。

Solon　decreed　that　a　census　should　be　taken　of　all　fortunes；　regulated　political　rights　by　the　result；　granted　to　the　larger　proprietors　more　influence；　established　the　balance　of　powers；　in　a　word；　inserted　in　the　constitution　the　most　active　leaven　of　discord；　as　if；　instead　of　a　legislator　chosen　by　the　people；　he　had　been　their　greatest　enemy。　　Is　it　not；　indeed；　the　height　of　imprudence　to　grant　equality　of　political　rights　to　men　of　unequal　conditions？　　If　a　manufacturer；　uniting　all　his　workmen　in　a　joint…stock　company；　should　give　to　each　of　them　a　consultative　and　deliberative　voice；that　is；　should　make　all　of　them　masters；would　this　equality　of　mastership　secure　continued　inequality　of　wages？　　That　is　the　whole　political　system　of　Solon；　reduced　to　its　simplest　expression。


〃In　giving　property　a　just　preponderance；〃　says　M。　Pastoret；　〃Solon　repaired；　as　far　as　he　was　able；　his　first　official　act；　the　abolition　of　debts。　。　。　。　　He　thought　he　owed　it　to　public　peace　to　make　this　great　sacrifice　of　acquired　rights　and　natural　equity。　　But　the　violation　of　individual　property　and　written　contracts　is　a　bad　preface　to　a　public　code。〃


In　fact；　such　violations　are　always　cruelly　punished。　　In　'89　and　'93；　the　possessions　of　the　nobility　and　the　clergy　were　confiscated；　the　clever　proletaires　were　enriched；　and　to…day　the　latter；　having　become　aristocrats；　are　making　us　pay　dearly　for　our　fathers'　robbery。　　What；　therefore；　is　to　be　done　now？　　It　is　not　for　us　to　violate　right；　but　to　restore　it。　　Now；　it　would　be　a　violation　of　justice　to　dispossess　some　and　endow　others；　and　then　stop　there。　　We　must　gradually　lower　the　rate　of　interest；　organize　industry；　associate　laborers　and　their　functions；　and　take　a　census　of　the　large　fortunes；　not　for　the　purpose　of　granting　privileges；　but　that　we　may　effect　their　redemption　by　settling　a　life…annuity　upon　their　proprietors。　　We　must　apply　on　a　large　scale　the　principle　of　collective　production；　give　the　State　eminent　domain　over　all　capital！　make　each　producer　responsible；　abolish　the　custom…house；　and　transform　every　profession　and　trade　into　a　public　function。　　Thereby　large　fortunes　will　vanish　without　confiscation　or　violence；　individual　possession　will　establish　itself；　without　communism；　under　the　inspection　of　the　republic；　and　equality　of　conditions　will　no　longer　depend　simply　on　the　will　of　citizens。

Of　the　authors　who　have　written　upon　the　Romans；　Bossuet　and　Montesquieu　occupy　prominent　positions　in　the　first　rank；　the　first　being　generally　regarded　as　the　father　of　the　philosophy　of　history；　and　the　second　as　the　most　profound　writer　upon　law　and　politics。　　Nevertheless；　it　could　be　shown　that　these　two　great　writers；　each　of　them　imbued　with　the　prejudices　of　their　century　and　their　cloth；　have　left　the　question　of　the　causes　of　the　rise　and　fall　of　the　Romans　precisely　where　they　found　it。

Bossuet　is　admirable　as　long　as　he　confines　himself　to　description：　witness；　among　other　passages；　the　picture　which　he　has　given　us　of　Greece　before　the　Persian　War；　and　which　seems　to　have　inspired　〃Telemachus；〃　the　parallel　between　Athens　and　Sparta；　drawn　twenty　times　since　Bossuet；　the　description　of　the　character　and