the expression of emotion in man and animals-第16部分

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　the　members　of　a　community；　as　a　call　for　assistance；　will　naturally　be　loud；　prolonged；　and　high；　so　as　to　penetrate　to　a　distance。　For　Helmholtz　has　shown＇7＇　that；　owing　to　the　shape　of　the　internal　cavity　of　the　human　ear　and　its　consequent　power　of　resonance；　high　notes　produce　a　particularly　strong　impression。　　When　male　animals　utter　sounds　in　order　to　please　the　females；　they　would　naturally　employ　those　which　are　sweet　to　the　ears　of　the　species；　and　it　appears　that　the　same　sounds　are　often　pleasing　to　widely　different　animals；　owing　to　the　similarity　of　their　nervous　systems；　as　we　ourselves　perceive　in　the　singing　of　birds　and　even　in　the　chirping　of　certain　tree…frogs　giving　us　pleasure。　On　the　other　hand；　sounds　produced　in　order　to　strike　terror　into　an　enemy；　would　naturally　be　harsh　or　displeasing。

Whether　the　principle　of　antithesis　has　come　into　play　with　sounds；　as　might　perhaps　have　been　expected；　is　doubtful。　The　interrupted；　laughing　or　tittering　sounds　made　by　man　and　by　various　kinds　of　monkeys　when　pleased；　are　as　different　as　possible　from　the　prolonged　screams　of　these　animals　when　distressed。　The　deep　grunt　of　satisfaction　uttered　by　a　pig；　when　pleased　with　its　food；　is　widely　different　from　its　harsh　scream　of　pain　or　terror。　But　with　the　dog；　as　lately　remarked；　the　bark　of　anger　and　that　of　joy　are　sounds　which　by　no　means　stand　in　opposition　to　each　other；　and　so　it　is　in　some　other　cases。

There　is　another　obscure　point；　namely；　whether　the　sounds　which　are　produced　under　various　states　of　the　mind　determine　the　shape　of　the　mouth；　or　whether　its　shape　is　not　determined　by　independent　causes；　and　the　sound　thus　modified。　　When　young　infants　cry　they　open　their　mouths　widely；　and　this；　no　doubt；　is　necessary　for　pouring　forth　a　full　volume　of　sound；　but　the　mouth　then　assumes；　from　a　quite　distinct　cause；　an　almost　quadrangular　shape；　depending；　as　will　hereafter　be　explained；　on　the　firm　closing　of　the　eyelids；　and　consequent　drawing　up　of　the　upper　lip。　How　far　this　square　shape　of　the　mouth　modifies　the　wailing　or　crying　sound；　I　am　not　prepared　to　say；　but　we　know　from　the　researches　of　Helmholtz　and　others　that　the　form　of　the　cavity　of　the　mouth　and　lips　determines　the　nature　and　pitch　of　the　vowel　sounds　which　are　produced。


＇7＇　‘Theorie　Physiologique　de　la　Musique；'　Paris；　1868；　P。　146。　Helmholtz　has　also　fully　discussed　in　this　profound　work　the　relation　of　the　form　of　the　cavity　of　the　mouth　to　the　production　of　vowel…sounds。

It　will　also　be　shown　in　a　future　chapter　that；　under　the　feeling　of　contempt　or　disgust；　there　is　a　tendency；　from　intelligible　causes；　to　blow　out　of　the　mouth　or　nostrils；　and　this　produces　sounds　like　pooh　or　pish。　　When　any　one　is　startled　or　suddenly　astonished；　there　is　an　instantaneous　tendency；　likewise　from　an　intelligible　cause；　namely；　to　be　ready　for　prolonged　exertion；　to　open　the　mouth　widely；　so　as　to　draw　a　deep　and　rapid　inspiration。　　When　the　next　full　expiration　follows；　the　mouth　is　slightly　closed；　and　the　lips；　from　causes　hereafter　to　be　discussed；　are　somewhat　protruded；　and　this　form　of　the　mouth；　if　the　voice　be　at　all　exerted；　produces；　according　to　Helmholtz；　the　sound　of　the　vowel　_O_。　　Certainly　a　deep　sound　of　a　prolonged　_Oh！_　may　be　heard　from　a　whole　crowd　of　people　immediately　after　witnessing　any　astonishing　spectacle。　If；　together　with　surprise；　pain　be　felt；　there　is　a　tendency　to　contract　all　the　muscles　of　the　body；　including　those　of　the　face；　and　the　lips　will　then　be　drawn　back；　and　this　will　perhaps　account　for　the　sound　becoming　higher　and　assuming　the　character　of　_Ah！_　or　_Ach！_　As　fear　causes　all　the　muscles　of　the　body　to　tremble；　the　voice　naturally　becomes　tremulous；　and　at　the　same　time　husky　from　the　dryness　of　the　mouth；　owing　to　the　salivary　glands　failing　to　act。　　Why　the　laughter　of　man　and　the　tittering　of　monkeys　should　be　a　rapidly　reiterated　sound；　cannot　be　explained。　During　the　utterance　of　these　sounds；　the　mouth　is　transversely　elongated　by　the　corners　being　drawn　backwards　and　upwards；　and　of　this　fact　an　explanation　will　be　attempted　in　a　future　chapter。　But　the　whole　subject　of　the　differences　of　the　sounds　produced　under　different　states　of　the　mind　is　so　obscure；　that　I　have　succeeded　in　throwing　hardly　any　light　on　it；　and　the　remarks　which　I　have　made；　have　but　little　significance。


All　the　sounds　hitherto　noticed　depend　on　the　respiratory　organs；　but　sounds　produced　by　wholly　different　means　are　likewise　expressive。　Rabbits　stamp　loudly　on　the　ground　as　a　signal　to　their　comrades；　and　if　a　man　knows　how　to　do　so　properly；　he　may　on　a　quiet　evening　hear　the　rabbits　answering　him　all　around。　　These　animals；　as　well　as　some　others；　also　stamp　on　the　ground　when　made　angry。　Porcupines　rattle　their　quills　and　vibrate　their　tails　when　angered；　and　one　behaved　in　this　manner　when　a　live　snake　was　placed　in　its　compartment。　The　tail　of　the　quills　on　the　tail　are　very　different　from　those　on　the　body：　they　are　short；　hollow；　thin　like　a　goose…quill；　with　their　ends　transversely　truncated；　so　that　they　are　open；　they　are　supported　on　long；　thin；　elastic　foot…stalks。　Now；　when　the　tail　is　rapidly　shaken；　these　hollow　quills　strike　against　each　other　and　produce；　as　I　heard　in　the　presence　of　Mr。　Bartlett；　a　peculiar　continuous　sound。　　We　can；　I　think；　understand　why　porcupines　have　been　provided；　through　the　modification　of　their　protective　spines；　with　this　special　sound…producing　instrument。　They　are　nocturnal　animals；　and　if　they　scented　or　heard　a　prowling　beast　of　prey；　it　would　be　a　great　advantage　to　them　in　the　dark　to　give　warning　to　their　enemy　what　they　were；　and　that　they　were　furnished　with　dangerous　spines。　　They　would　thus　escape　being　attacked。　They　are；　as　I　may　add；　so　fully　conscious　of　the　power　of　their　weapons；　that　when　enraged　they　will　charge　backwards　with　their　spines　erected；　yet　still　inclined　backwards。

Many　birds　during　their　courtship　produce　diversified　sounds　by　means　of　specially　adapted　feathers。　　Storks；　when　excited；　make　a　loud　clattering　noise　with　their　beaks。　　Some　snakes　produce　a　grating　or　rattling　noise。　　Many　insects　stridulate　by　rubbing　together　specially　modified　parts　of　their　hard　integuments。　This　stridulation　generally　serves　as　a　sexual　charm　or　call；　but　it　is　likewise　used　to　express　different　emotions。＇8＇　Every　one　who　has　attended　to　bees　knows　that　their　humming　changes　when　they　are　angry；　and　this　serves　as　a　warning　that　there　is　danger　of　being　stung。　I　have　made　these　few　remarks　because　some　writers　have　laid　so　much　stress　on　the　vocal　and　respiratory　organs　as　having　been　specially　adapted　for　expression；　that　it　was　advisable　to　show　that　sounds　otherwise　produced　serve　equally　well　for　the　same　purpose。

_Erection　of　the　dermal　appendages_。Hardly　any　expressive　movement　is　so　general　as　the　involuntary　erection　of　the　hairs；　feathers　and　other　dermal　appendages；　for　it　is　common　throughout　three　of　the　great　vertebrate　classes。　　These　appendages　are　erected　under　the　excitement　of　anger　or　terror；　more　especially　when　these　emotions　are　combined；　or　quickly　succeed　each　other。　The　action　serves　to　make　the　animal　appear　larger　and　more　frightful　to　its　enemies　or　rivals；　and　is　generally　accompanied　by　various　voluntary　movements　adapted　for　the　same　purpose；　and　by　the　utterance　of　savage　sounds。　　Mr。　Bartlett；　who　has　had　such　wide　experience　with　animals　of　all　kinds；　does　not　doubt　that　this　is　the　case；　but　it　is　a　different　question　whether　the　power　of　erection　was　primarily　acquired　for　this　special　purpose。


＇8＇　I　have　given　some　details　on　this　subject　in　my　‘Descent　of　Man；'　vol。　　i。　　pp。　　352；　384。

I　will　first　give　a　considerable　body　of　facts　showing　how　general　this　action　is　with　mammals；　birds　and　reptiles；　retaining　what　I　have　to　say　in　regard　to　man　for　a　future　chapter。　Mr。　Sutton；　the　intelligent　keeper　in　the　Zoological　Gardens；　carefully　observed　for　me　the　Chimpanzee　and　Orang；　and　he　states　that　when　they　are　suddenly　frightened；　as　by　a　thunderstorm；　or　when　they　are　made　angry；　as　by　being　teased；　their　hair　becomes　erect。　I　saw　a　chimpanzee　who　was　alarmed　at　the　sight　of　a　black　coalheaver；　and　the　hair　rose　all　over　his　body；　he　made　little　starts　forward　as　if　to　attack　the　man；　without　any　real　intention　of　doing　so；　but　with　the　hope；　as　the　keeper　remarked；　of　frightening　him。　The　Gorilla；　when　enraged；　is　described　by　Mr。　Ford＇9＇　as　having　his　crest　of　hair　〃erect　and　projecting　forward；　his　nostrils　dilated；　and　his　under　lip　thrown　down；　at　the　same　time　uttering　his　characteristic　yell；　designed；　it　would　seem；　to　terrify　his　antagonists。〃　　I　saw　the　hair　on　the　Anubis　baboon；　when　angered　bristling　along　the　back；　from　the　neck　to　the　loins；　but　not　on　the　rump　or　other　parts　of　the　body。　I　took　a　stuffed　snake　into　the　monkey…house；　and　the　hair　on　several　of　the　species　instantly　became　erect；　especially　on　their　tails；　as　I　particularly　noticed　with　the　_Cereopithecus　nictitans_。　Brehm　states＇10＇　that　the　_Midas　aedipus_　（belonging　to　the　American　division）　when　excited　erects　its　mane；　in　order；　as　he　adds；　to　make　itself　as　frightful　as　possible。


＇9＇　As　quoted　in　Huxley's　‘Evidence　as　to　Man's　Place　in　Nature；'　1863；　p。　　52。

With　the　Carnivora　the　erection　of　the　hair　seems　to　be　almost　universal；　often　accompanied　by　threatening　movements；　the　uncovering　of　the　teeth　and　the　utterance　of　savage　growls。　In　the　Herpestes；　I　have　seen　the　hair　on　end　over　nearly　the　whole　body；　including　the　tail；　and　the　dorsal　crest　is　erected　in　a　conspicuous　manner　by　the　Hyaena　and　Proteles。　　The　enraged　lion　erects　his　mane。　The　bristling　of　the　hair　along　the　neck　and　back　of　the　dog；　and　over　the　whole　body　of　the　cat；　especially　on　the　tail；　is　familiar　to　every　one。　　With　the　cat　it　apparently　occurs　only　under　fear；　with　the　dog；　under　anger　and　fear；　but　not；　as　far　as　I　have　observed；　under　abject　fear；　as　when　a　dog　is　going　to　be　flogged　by　a　severe　gamekeeper。　　If；　however；　the　dog　shows　fight；　as　sometimes　happens；　up　goes　his　hair。　I　have　often　noticed　that　the　hair　of　a　dog　is　particularly　liable　to　rise；　if　he　is　half　angry　and　half　afraid；　as　on　beholding　some　objec