aeroplanes-第7部分

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soaring　birds　did　not　exert　any　power　in　flying。



Writers　and　experimenters　do　not　agree　on　the

question　of　the　propulsive　power；　or　on　the　form

or　shape　of　the　wing　which　is　most　effective；　or

in　the　matter　of　the　relation　of　surface　to　weight；

nor　do　they　agree　in　any　particular　as　to　the　effect

and　action　of　matter　in　the　soaring　principle。



Only　a　small　percentage　of　flying　creatures　use

motionless　wings　as　in　soaring。　By　far；　the

greater　majority　use　beating　wings；　a　method　of

translation　in　air　which　has　not　met　with　success

in　any　attempts　on　the　part　of　the　inventor。



Nevertheless；　experimenting　has　proceeded　on

lines　which　seek　to　recognize　nature's　form　only；

while　avoiding　the　best　known　and　most　persistent

type。



SHAPE　OF　SUPPORTING　SURFACES。When　we　examine

the　prevailing　type　of　supporting　surfaces

we　cannot　fail　to　be　impressed　with　one　feature；

namely；　the　determination　to　insist　on　a　broad

spread　of　plane　surface；　in　imitation　of　the　bird

with　outstretched　wings。



THE　TROUBLE　ARISING　FROM　OUTSTRETCHED

WINGS。This　form　of　construction　is　what　brings

all　the　troubles　in　its　train。　The　literature　on

aviation　is　full　of　arguments　on　this　subject；　all

declaring　that　a　wide　spread　is　essential；　because；

birds　fly　that　way。



These　assertions　are　made　notwithstanding　the

fact　that　only　a　few　years　ago；　in　the　great　exhibit

of　aeroplanes　in　Paris；　many　unique　forms　of　machines

were　shown；　all　of　them　capable　of　flying；

as　proven　by　numerous　experiments；　and　among

them　were　a　half　dozen　types　whose　length　fore

and　aft　were　much　greater　than　transversely；　and

it　was　particularly　noted　that　they　had　most　wonderful

stability。



DENSITY　OF　THE　ATMOSPHERE。Experts　declare

that　the　density　of　the　atmosphere　varies　throughout；

that　it　has　spots　here　and　there　which　are；

apparently；　like　holes；　so　that　one　side　or　the

other　of　the　machine　will；　unaccountably；　tilt；　and

sometimes　the　entire　machine　will　suddenly　drop

for　many　feet；　while　in　flight。



ELASTICITY　OF　THE　AIR。Air　is　the　most　elastic

substance　known。　The　particles　constituting　it

are　constantly　in　motion。　When　heat　or　cold　penetrate

the　mass　it　does　so；　in　a　general　way；　so　as

to　permeate　the　entire　body；　but　the　conductivity

of　the　atmospheric　gases　is　such　that　the　heat

does　not　reach　all　parts　at　the　same　time。



AIR　HOLES。The　result　is　that　varying　strata

of　heat　and　cold　seem　to　be　superposed；　and　also

distributed　along　the　route　taken　by　a　machine；

causing　air　currents　which　vary　in　direction　and

intensity。　When；　therefore；　a　rapidly…moving

machine　passes　through　an　atmosphere　so　disturbed；

the　surfaces　of　the　planes　strike　a　mass　of

air　moving；　we　may　say；　first　toward　the　plane；

and　the　next　instant　the　current　is　reversed；　and

the　machine　drops；　because　its　support　is　temporarily

gone；　and　the　aviator　experiences　the　sensation

of　going　into　a　〃hole。〃



RESPONSIBILITY　FOR　ACCIDENTS。These　so…called

〃holes〃　are　responsible　for　many　accidents。　The

outstretched　wings；　many　of　them　over　forty　feet

from　tip　to　tip；　offer　opportunities　for　a　tilt　at　one

end　or　the　other；　which　has　sent　so　many　machines

to　destruction。



The　high　center　of　gravity　in　all　machines　makes

the　weight　useless　to　counterbalance　the　rising

end　or　to　hold　up　the　depressed　wing。



All　aviators　agree　that　these　unequal　areas　of

density　extend　over　small　spaces；　and　it　is；　therefore；

obvious　that　a　machine　which　is　of　such　a

structure　that　it　moves　through　the　air　broadside

on；　will　be　more　liable　to　meet　these　inequalities

than　one　which　is　narrow　and　does　not　take　in　such

a　wide　path。



Why；　therefore；　persist　in　making　a　form　which；

by　its　very　nature；　invites　danger？　Because　birds

fly　that　way！



THE　TURNING　MOVEMENT。This　structural　arrangement

accentuates　the　difficulty　when　the　machine

turns。　The　air　pressure　against　the　wing

surface　is　dependent　on　the　speed。　The　broad

outstretched　surfaces　compel　the　wing　at　the　outer

side　of　the　circle　to　travel　faster　than　the　inner

one。　As　a　result；　the　outer　end　of　the　aeroplane

is　elevated。



CENTRIFUGAL　ACTION。At　the　same　time　the

running　gear；　and　the　frame　which　carries　it　and

supports　the　machine　while　at　rest；　being　below

the　planes；　a　centrifugal　force　is　exerted；　when

turning　a　circle；　which　tends　to　swing　the　wheels

and　frame　outwardly；　and　thereby　still　further

elevating　the　outer　end　of　the　plane。



THE　WARPING　PLANES。The　only　remedy　to

meet　this　condition　is　expressed　in　the　mechanism

which　wraps　or　twists　the　outer　ends　of　the　planes；

as　constructed　in　the　Wright　machine；　or　the

ailerons；　or　small　wings　at　the　rear　margins　of　the

planes；　as　illustrated　by　the　Farman　machine。

The　object　of　this　arrangement　is　to　decrease　the

angle　of　incidence　at　the　rising　end；　and　increase

the　angle　at　the　depressed　end；　and　thus；　by　manually…

operated　means　keep　the　machine　on　an　even

keel。







CHAPTER　IV



FORE　AND　AFT　CONTROL





THERE　is　no　phase　of　the　art　of　flying　more　important

than　the　fore　and　aft　control　of　an　airship。

Lateral　stability　is　secondary　to　this　feature；　for

reasons　which　will　appear　as　we　develop　the

subject。



THE　BIRD　TYPE　OF　FORE　AND　AFT　CONTROL。

Every　aeroplane　follows　the　type　set　by　nature

in　the　particular　that　the　body　is　caused　to　oscillate

on　a　vertical　fore　and　aft　plane　while　in

flight。　The　bird　has　one　important　advantage；

however；　in　structure。　Its　wing　has　a　flexure　at

the　joint；　so　that　its　body　can　so　oscillate　independently

of　the　angle　of　the　wings。



The　aeroplane　has　the　wing　firmly　fixed　to　the

body；　hence　the　only　way　in　which　it　is　possible

to　effect　a　change　in　the　angle　of　the　wing　is　by

changing　the　angle　of　the　body。　To　be　consistent

the　aeroplane　should　be　so　constructed　that　the

angle　of　the　supporting　surfaces　should　be　movable；

and　not　controllable　by　the　body。



The　bird；　in　initiating　flight　from　a　perch；　darts

downwardly；　and　changes　the　angle　of　the　body　to

correspond　with　the　direction　of　the　flying　start。

When　it　alights　the　body　is　thrown　so　that　its

breast　banks　against　the　air；　but　in　ordinary　flight

its　wings　only　are　used　to　change　the　angle　of

flight。



ANGLE　AND　DIRECTION　OF　FLIGHT。In　order　to

become　familiar　with　terms　which　will　be　frequently

used　throughout　the　book；　care　should　be

taken　to　distinguish　between　the　terms　angle　and

direction　of　flight。　The　former　has　reference　to

the　up　and　down　movement　of　an　aeroplane；

whereas　the　latter　is　used　to　designate　a　turning

movement　to　the　right　or　to　the　left。



WHY　SHOULD　THE　ANGLE　OF　THE　BODY　CHANGE？

The　first　question　that　presents　itself　is；　why

should　the　angle　of　the　aeroplane　body　change？

Why　should　it　be　made　to　dart　up　and　down　and

produce　a　sinuous　motion？　Why　should　its　nose

tilt　toward　the　earth；　when　it　is　descending；　and

raise　the　forward　part　of　the　structure　while　ascending？



The　ready　answer　on　the　part　of　the　bird…form

advocate　is；　that　nature　has　so　designed　a　flying

structure。　The　argument　is　not　consistent；　because

in　this　respect；　as　in　every　other；　it　is　not

made　to　conform　to　the　structure　which　they　seek

to　copy。



CHANGING　ANGLE　OF　BODY　NOT　SAFE。Furthermore；

there　is　not　a　single　argument　which　can　be

advanced　in　behalf　of　that　method　of　building；

which　proves　it　to　be　correct。　Contrariwise；　an

analysis　of　the　flying　movement　will　show　that　it　is

the　one　feature　which　has　militated　against　safety；

and　that　machines　will　never　be　safe　so　long　as

the　angle　of　the　body　must　be　depended　upon　to

control　the　angle　of　flying。



_Fig。　11a　Monoplane　in　Flight。_



In　Fig。　11a　three　positions　of　a　monoplane　are

shown；　each　in　horizontal　flight。　Let　us　say　that

the　first　figure　A　is　going　at　40　miles　per　hour；

the　second；　B；　at　50；　and　the　third；　C；　at　60　miles。

The　body　in　A　is　nearly　horizontal；　the　angle　of

the　plane　D　being　such　that；　with　the　tail　E　also

horizontal；　an　even　flight　is　maintained。



When　the　speed　increases　to　50　miles　an　hour；

the　angle　of　incidence　in　the　plane　D　must　be

decreased；　so　that　the　rear　end　of　the　frame　must

be　raised；　which　is　done　by　giving　the　tail　an　angle

of　incidence；　otherwise；　as　the　upper　side　of　the

tail　should　meet　the　air　it　would　drive　the　rear

end　of　the　frame　down；　and　thus　defeat　the　attempt

to　elevate　that　part。



_Fig。　12。　Angles　of　Flight。_



As　the　speed　increases　ten　miles　more；　the　tail

is　swung　down　still　further　and　the　rear　end　of

the　frame　is　now　actually　above　the　plane　of　flight。

In　order；　now；　to　change　the　angle　of　flight；　without

altering　the　speed　of　the　machine；　the　tail　is

used　to　effect　the　control。



Examine　the　first　diagram　in　Fig。　12。　This

shows　the　tail　E　still　further　depressed；　and　the

air　striking　its　lower　side；　causes　an　upward　movement

of　the　frame　at　that　end；　which　so　much　decreases

the　angle　of　incidence　that　the　aeroplane

darts　downwardly。



In　order　to　ascend；　the　tail；　as　shown　in　the　second

diagram；　is　elevated　so　as　to　depress　the　rear

end；　and　now　the　sustaining　surface　shoots　upwardly。



Suppose　that　in　either　of　the　positions　1　or　2；

thus　described；　the　aviator　should　lose　control　of

the　mechanism；　or　it　should　become　deranged　or

〃stick；〃　conditions　which　have　existed　in　the　history

of　the　art；　what　is　there　to　prevent　an　accident？



In　the　first　case；　if　there　is　room；　the　machine

will　loop　the　loop；　and　in　the　second　case　the　machine

will　move　upwardly　until　it　is　vertical；　and

then；　in　all　probability；　as　its　propelling　power　is

not　sufficient　to　hold　it　in　that　position；　like　a

helicopter；　and　having　absolutely　no　wing　supporting

surface　when　in　that　position；　it　will　dart

down　tail　foremost。



A　NON…CHANGING　BODY。We　may　contrast　the