the armies of labor-第1部分

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The　Armies　of　Labor；　A　Chronicle　of　the　Organized　Wage…Earners

by　Samuel　P。　Orth






CONTENTS


I。　THE　BACKGROUND
II。　FORMATIVE　YEARS
III。　TRANSITION　YEARS
IV。　AMALGAMATION
V。　FEDERATION
VI。　THE　TRADE　UNION
VII。　THE　RAILWAY　BROTHERHOODS
VIII。　ISSUES　AND　WARFARE
IX。　THE　NEW　TERRORISM：　THE　I。W。W。
X。　LABOR　AND　POLITICS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL　NOTE





THE　ARMIES　OF　LABOR

CHAPTER　I。　THE　BACKGROUND

Three　momentous　things　symbolize　the　era　that　begins　its　cycle　with　the　memorable　year　of　1776：　the　Declaration　of　Independence；　the　steam　engine；　and　Adam　Smith's　book；　〃The　Wealth　of　Nations。〃　The　Declaration　gave　birth　to　a　new　nation；　whose　millions　of　acres　of　free　land　were　to　shift　the　economic　equilibrium　of　the　world；　the　engine　multiplied　man's　productivity　a　thousandfold　and　uprooted　in　a　generation　the　customs　of　centuries；　the　book　gave　to　statesmen　a　new　view　of　economic　affairs　and　profoundly　influenced　the　course　of　international　trade　relations。

The　American　people；　as　they　faced　the　approaching　age　with　the　experiences　of　the　race　behind　them；　fashioned　many　of　their　institutions　and　laws　on　British　models。　This　is　true　to　such　an　extent　that　the　subject　of　this　book；　the　rise　of　labor　in　America；　cannot　be　understood　without　a　preliminary　survey　of　the　British　industrial　system　nor　even　without　some　reference　to　the　feudal　system；　of　which　English　society　for　many　centuries　bore　the　marks　and　to　which　many　relics　of　tenure　and　of　class　and　governmental　responsibility　may　be　traced。　Feudalism　was　a　society　in　which　the　status　of　an　individual　was　fixed：　he　was　underman　or　overman　in　a　rigid　social　scale　according　as　he　considered　his　relation　to　his　superiors　or　to　his　inferiors。　Whatever　movement　there　was　took　place　horizontally；　in　the　same　class　or　on　the　same　social　level。　The　movement　was　not　vertical；　as　it　so　frequently　is　today；　and　men　did　not　ordinarily　rise　above　the　social　level　of　their　birth；　never　by　design；　and　only　perhaps　by　rare　accident　or　genius。　It　was　a　little　world　of　lords　and　serfs；　of　knights　who　graced　court　and　castle；　jousted　at　tournaments；　or　fought　upon　the　field　of　battle；　and　of　serfs　who　toiled　in　the　fields；　served　in　the　castle；　or；　as　the　retainers　of　the　knight；　formed　the　crude　soldiery　of　medieval　days。　For　their　labor　and　allegiance　they　were　clothed　and　housed　and　fed。　Yet　though　there　were　feast　days　gay　with　the　color　of　pageantry　and　procession；　the　worker　was　always　in　a　servile　state；　an　underman　dependent　upon　his　master；　and　sometimes　looking　upon　his　condition　as　little　better　than　slavery。

With　the　break…up　of　this　rigid　system　came　in　England　the　emancipation　of　the　serf；　the　rise　of　the　artisan　class；　and　the　beginnings　of　peasant　agriculture。　That　personal　gravitation　which　always　draws　together　men　of　similar　ambitions　and　tasks　now　began　to　work　significant　changes　in　the　economic　order。　The　peasantry；　more　or　less　scattered　in　the　country；　found　it　difficult　to　unite　their　powers　for　redressing　their　grievances；　although　there　were　some　peasant　revolts　of　no　mean　proportions。　But　the　artisans　of　the　towns　were　soon　grouped　into　powerful　organizations；　called　guilds；　so　carefully　managed　and　so　well　disciplined　that　they　dominated　every　craft　and　controlled　every　detail　in　every　trade。　The　relation　of　master　to　journeyman　and　apprentice；　the　wages；　hours；　quantity；　and　quality　of　the　output；　were　all　minutely　regulated。　Merchant　guilds；　similarly　constituted；　also　prospered。　The　magnificent　guild　halls　that　remain　in　our　day　are　monuments　of　the　power　and　splendor　of　these　organizations　that　made　the　towns　of　the　later　Middle　Ages　flourishing　centers　of　trade；　of　handicrafts；　and　of　art。　As　towns　developed；　they　dealt　the　final　blow　to　an　agricultural　system　based　on　feudalism；　they　became　cities　of　refuge　for　the　runaway　serfs；　and　their　charters；　insuring　political　and　economic　freedom；　gave　them　superior　advantages　for　trading。

The　guild　system　of　manufacture　was　gradually　replaced　by　the　domestic　system。　The　workman's　cottage；　standing　in　its　garden；　housed　the　loom　and　the　spinning　wheel；　and　the　entire　family　was　engaged　in　labor　at　home。　But　the　workman；　thus　apparently　independent；　was　not　the　owner　of　either　the　raw　material　or　the　finished　product。　A　middleman　or　agent　brought　him　the　wool；　carried　away　the　cloth；　and　paid　him　his　hire。　Daniel　Defoe；　who　made　a　tour　of　Britain　in　1794…6；　left　a　picture　of　rural　England　in　this　period；　often　called　the　golden　age　of　labor。　The　land；　he　says；　〃was　divided　into　small　inclosures　from　two　acres　to　six　or　seven　each；　seldom　more；　every　three　or　four　pieces　of　land　had　an　house　belonging　to　them；　。。。hardly　an　house　standing　out　of　a　speaking　distance　from　another　。。。。　We　could　see　at　every　house　a　tenter；　and　on　almost　every　tenter　a　piece　of　cloth　or　kersie　or　shalloon　。。。。　At　every　considerable　house　was　a　manufactory　。。。。　Every　clothier　keeps　one　horse；　at　least；　to　carry　his　manufactures　to　the　market　and　every　one　generally　keeps　a　cow　or　two　or　more　for　his　family。　By　this　means　the　small　pieces　of　inclosed　land　about　each　house　are　occupied；　for　they　scarce　sow　corn　enough　to　feed　their　poultry　。。。。　The　houses　are　full　of　lusty　fellows；　some　at　the　dye　vat；　some　at　the　looms；　others　dressing　the　clothes；　the　women　or　children　carding　or　spinning；　being　all　employed；　from　the　youngest　to　the　oldest。〃

But　more　significant　than　these　changes　was　the　rise　of　the　so…called　mercantile　system；　in　which　the　state　took　under　its　care　industrial　details　that　were　formerly　regulated　by　the　town　or　guild。　This　system；　beginning　in　the　sixteenth　century　and　lasting　through　the　eighteenth；　had　for　its　prime　object　the　upbuilding　of　national　trade。　The　state；　in　order　to　insure　the　homogeneous　development　of　trade　and　industry；　dictated　the　prices　of　commodities。　It　prescribed　the　laws　of　apprenticeship　and　the　rules　of　master　and　servant。　It　provided　inspectors　for　passing　on　the　quality　of　goods　offered　for　sale。　It　weighed　the　loaves；　measured　the　cloth；　and　tested　the　silverware。　It　prescribed　wages；　rural　and　urban；　and　bade　the　local　justice　act　as　a　sort　of　guardian　over　the　laborers　in　his　district。　To　relieve　poverty　poor　laws　were　passed；　to　prevent　the　decline　of　productivity　corn　laws　were　passed　fixing　arbitrary　prices　for　grain。　For　a　time　monopolies　creating　artificial　prosperity　were　granted　to　individuals　and　to　corporations　for　the　manufacture；　sale；　or　exploitation　of　certain　articles；　such　as　matches；　gunpowder；　and　playing…cards。

This　highly　artificial　and　paternalistic　state　was　not　content　with　regulating　all　these　internal　matters　but　spread　its　protection　over　foreign　commerce。　Navigation　acts　attempted　to　monopolize　the　trade　of　the　colonies　and　especially　the　trade　in　the　products　needed　by　the　mother　country。　England　encouraged　shipping　and　during　this　period　achieved　that　dominance　of　the　sea　which　has　been　the　mainstay　of　her　vast　empire。　She　fostered　plantations　and　colonies　not　for　their　own　sake　but　that　they　might　be　tributaries　to　the　wealth　of　the　nation。　An　absurd　importance　was　attached　to　the　possession　of　gold　and　silver；　and　the　ingenuity　of　statesmen　was　exhausted　in　designing　lures　to　entice　these　metals　to　London。　Banking　and　insurance　began　to　assume　prime　importance。　By　1750　England　had　sent　ships　into　every　sea　and　had　planted　colonies　around　the　globe。

But　while　the　mechanism　of　trade　and　of　government　made　surprising　progress　during　the　mercantile　period；　the　mechanism　of　production　remained　in　the　slow　handicraft　stage。　This　was　now　to　change。　In　1738　Kay　invented　the　flying　shuttle；　multiplying　the　capacity　of　the　loom。　In　1767　Hargreaves　completed　the　spinning…jenny；　and　in　1771　Arkwright　perfected　his　roller　spinning　machine。　A　few　years　later　Crompton　combined　the　roller　and　the　jenny；　and　after　the　application　of　steam　to　spinning　in　1785　the　power　loom　replaced　the　hand　loom。　The　manufacture　of　woolen　cloth　being　the　principal　industry　of　England；　it　was　natural　that　machinery　should　first　be　invented　for　the　spinning　and　weaving　of　wool。　New　processes　in　the　manufacture　of　iron　and　steel　and　the　development　of　steam　transportation　soon　followed。

Within　the　course　of　a　few　decades　the　whole　economic　order　was　changed。　Whereas　many　centuries　had　been　required　for　the　slow　development　of　the　medieval　system　of　feudalism；　the　guild　system；　and　the　handicrafts；　now；　like　a　series　of　earthquake　shocks；　came　changes　so　sudden　and　profound　that　even　today　society　has　not　yet　learned　to　adjust　itself　to　the　myriads　of　needs　and　possibilities　which　the　union　of　man's　mind　with　nature's　forces　has　produced。　The　industrial　revolution　took　the　workman　from　the　land　and　crowded　him　into　the　towns。　It　took　the　loom　from　his　cottage　and　placed　it　in　the　factory。　It　took　the　tool　from　his　hand　and　harnessed　it　to　a　shaft。　It　robbed　him　of　his　personal　skill　and　joined　his　arm　of　flesh　to　an　arm　of　iron。　It　reduced　him　from　a　craftsman　to　a　specialist；　from　a　maker　of　shoes　to　a　mere　stitcher　of　soles。　It　took　from　him；　at　a　single　blow；　his　interest　in　the　workmanship　of　his　task；　his　ownership　of　the　tools；　his　garden；　his　wholesome　environment；　and　even　his　family。　All　were　swallowed　by　the　black　maw　of　the　ugly　new　mill　town。　The　hardships　of　the　old　days　were　soon　forgotten　in　the　horrors　of　the　new。　For　the　transition　was　rapid　enough　to　make　the　contrast　striking。　Indeed　it　was　so　rapid　that　the　new　class　of　employers；　the　capitalists；　found　little　time　to　think　of　anything　but　increasing　their　profits；　and　the　new　class　of　employees；　now　merely　wage…earners；　found　that　their　long　hours　of　monotonous　toil　gave　them　little　leisure　and　no　interest。

The　transition　from　the　age　of　handicrafts　to　the　era　of　machines　presents　a　picture　of　greed　that　tempts　one　to　bitter　invective。　Its　details　are　dispassionately　catalogued　by　the　Royal　Commissions　that　finally　towards　the　middle　of　the　nineteenth　century　inquired　into　industrial　conditions。　From　these　reports　Karl　Marx　drew　inspiration　for　his　social　philosophy；　and　in　them　his　friend　Engles　found　the　facts　that　he　retold　so　vividly；　for　the　purpose　of　arousing　his　fellow　workmen。