the armies of labor-第10部分

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sue　his　studies　during　his　apprenticeship；　and　feeling　withal　a　strong　affection　for　secret　organizations；　having　been　for　many　years　connected　with　the　Masonic　Order。〃　He　was　to　have　been　educated　for　the　ministry　but；　owing　to　financial　reverses　in　his　family；　was　obliged　instead　to　learn　a　trade。　Later　he　taught　school　for　a　few　years；　traveled　extensively　in　the　West　Indies；　South　America；　and　California；　and　became　an　accomplished　public　speaker　and　a　diligent　observer　of　social　conditions。

Stephens　and　his　six　associates　had　witnessed　the　dissolution　of　the　local　garment　cutters'　union。　They　resolved　that　the　new　society　should　not　be　limited　by　the　lines　of　their　own　trade　but　should　embrace　〃all　branches　of　honorable　toil。〃　Subsequently　a　rule　was　adopted　stipulating　that　at　least　three…fourths　of　the　membership　of　lodges　must　be　wage…earners　eighteen　years　of　age。　Moreover；　〃no　one　who　either　sells　or　makes　a　living；　or　any　part　of　it；　by　the　sale　of　intoxicating　drinks　either　as　manufacturer；　dealer；　or　agent；　or　through　any　member　of　his　family；　can　be　admitted　to　membership　in　this　order；　and　no　lawyer；　banker；　professional　gambler；　or　stock　broker　can　be　admitted。〃　They　chose　their　motto　from　Solon；　the　wisest　of　lawgivers：　〃That　is　the　most　perfect　government　in　which　an　injury　to　one　is　the　concern　of　all〃；　and　they　took　their　preamble　from　Burke；　the　most　philosophical　of　statesmen：　〃When　bad　men　combine；　the　good　must　associate；　else　they　will　fall；　one　by　one；　an　unpitied　sacrifice　in　a　contemptible　struggle。〃

The　order　was　a　secret　society　and　for　years　kept　its　name　from　the　public。　It　was　generally　known　as　the　〃Five　Stars；〃　because　of　the　five　asterisks　that　represented　its　name　in　all　public　notices。　While　mysterious　initials　and　secret　ceremonies　gratified　the　members；　they　aroused　a　corresponding　antagonism；　even　fear；　among　the　public；　especially　as　the　order　grew　to　giant　size。　What　were　the　potencies　of　a　secret　organization　that　had　only　to　post　a　few　mysterious　words　and　symbols　to　gather　hundreds　of　workingmen　in　their　halls？　And　what　plottings　went　on　behind　those　locked　and　guarded　doors？　To　allay　public　hostility　secrecy　was　gradually　removed　and　in　1881　was　entirely　abolished　not；　however；　without　serious　opposition　from　the　older　members。

The　atmosphere　of　high　idealism　in　which　the　order　had　been　conceived　continued　to　be　fostered　by　Stephens；　its　founder　and　its　first　Grand　Master　Workman。　He　extolled　justice；　discountenanced　violence；　and　pleaded　for　〃the　mutual　development　and　moral　elevation　of　mankind。〃　His　exhortations　were　free　from　that　narrow　class　antagonism　which　frequently　characterizes　the　utterances　of　labor。　One　of　his　associates；　too；　invoked　the　spirit　of　chivalry；　of　true　knighthood；　when　he　said　that　the　old　trade　union　had　failed　because　〃it　had　failed　to　recognize　the　rights　of　man　and　looked　only　to　the　rights　of　tradesmen；〃　that　the　labor　movement　needed　〃something　that　will　develop　more　of　charity；　less　of　selfishness；　more　of　generosity；　less　of　stinginess　and　nearness；　than　the　average　society　has　yet　disclosed　to　its　members。〃　Nor　were　these　ideas　and　principles　betrayed　by　Stephens's　successor；　Terence　V。　Powderly；　who　became　Grand　Master　in　1879　and　served　during　the　years　when　the　order　attained　its　greatest　power。　Powderly；　also；　was　a　conservative　idealist。　His　career　may　be　regarded　as　a　good　example　of　the　rise　of　many　an　American　labor　leader。　He　had　been　a　poor　boy。　At　thirteen　he　began　work　as　a　switch…tender；　at　seventeen　he　was　apprenticed　as　machinist；　at　nineteen　he　was　active　in　a　machinists'　and　blacksmiths'　union。　After　working　at　his　trade　in　various　places；　he　at　length　settled　in　Scranton；　Pennsylvania；　and　became　one　of　the　organizers　of　the　Greenback　Labor　party。　He　was　twice　elected　mayor　of　Scranton；　and　might　have　been　elected　for　a　third　term　had　he　not　declined　to　serve；　preferring　to　devote　all　his　time　to　the　society　of　which　he　was　Grand　Master。　The　obligations　laid　upon　every　member　of　the　Knights　of　Labor　were　impressive：　Labor　is　noble　and　holy。　To　defend　it　from　degradation；　to　divest　it　of　the　evils　to　body；　mind　and　estate　which　ignorance　and　greed　have　imposed；　to　rescue　the　toiler　from　the　grasp　of　the　selfishis　a　work　worthy　of　the　noblest　and　best　of　our　race。　In　all　the　multifarious　branches　of　trade　capital　has　its　combinations；　and；　whether　intended　or　not；　it　crushes　the　manly　hopes　of　labor　and　tramples　poor　humanity　in　the　dust。　We　mean　no　conflict　with　legitimate　enterprise；　no　antagonism　to　necessary　capital；　but　men　in　their　haste　and　greed；　blinded　by　self…interests；　overlook　the　interests　of　others　and　sometimes　violate　the　rights　of　those　they　deem　helpless。　We　mean　to　uphold　the　dignity　of　labor；　to　affirm　the　nobility　of　all　who　earn　their　bread　by　the　sweat　of　their　brows。　We　mean　to　create　a　healthy　public　opinion　on　the　subject　of　labor　（the　only　creator　of　values　or　capital）　and　the　justice　of　its　receiving　a　full；　just　share　of　the　values　or　capital　it　has　created。　We　shall；　with　all　our　strength；　support　laws　made　to　harmonize　the　interests　of　labor　and　capital；　for　labor　alone　gives　life　and　value　to　capital；　and　also　those　laws　which　tend　to　lighten　the　exhaustiveness　of　toil。　To　pause　in　his　toil；　to　devote　himself　to　his　own　interests；　to　gather　a　knowledge　of　the　world's　commerce；　to　unite；　combine　and　cooperate　in　the　great　army　of　peace　and　industry；　to　nourish　and　cherish；　build　and　develop　the　temple　he　lives　in　is　the　highest　and　noblest　duty　of　man　to　himself；　to　his　fellow　men　and　to　his　Creator。

The　phenomenal　growth　and　collapse　of　the　Knights　of　Labor　is　one　of　the　outstanding　events　in　American　economic　history。　The　membership　in　1869　consisted　of　eleven　tailors。　This　small　beginning　grew　into　the　famous　Assembly　No。　1。　Soon　the　ship　carpenters　wanted　to　join；　and　Assembly　No。　2　was　organized。　The　shawl…weavers　formed　another　assembly；　the　carpet…weavers　another；　and　so　on；　until　over　twenty　assemblies；　covering　almost　every　trade；　had　been　organized　in　Philadelphia　alone。　By　1875　there　were　eighty　assemblies　in　the　city　and　its　vicinity。　As　the　number　of　lodges　multiplied；　it　became　necessary　to　establish　a　common　agency　or　authority；　and　a　Committee　on　the　Good　of　the　Order　was　constituted　to　represent　all　the　local　units；　but　this　committee　was　soon　superseded　by　a　delegate　body　known　as　the　District　Assembly。　As　the　movement　spread　from　city　to　city　and　from　State　to　State；　a　General　Assembly　was　created　in　1878　to　hold　annual　conventions　and　to　be　the　supreme　authority　of　the　order。　In　1883　the　membership　of　the　order　was　591；000；　within　three　years；　it　had　mounted　to　over　700；000；　and　at　the　climax　of　its　career　the　society　boasted　over　1；000；000　workmen　in　the　United　States　and　Canada　who　had　vowed　fealty　to　its　knighthood。　It　is　not　to　be　imagined　that　every　member　of　this　vast　horde　so　suddenly　brought　together　understood　the　obligations　of　the　workman's　chivalry。　The　selfish　and　the　lawless　rushed　in　with　the　prudent　and　sincere。　But　a　resolution　of　the　executive　board　to　stop　the　initiation　of　new　members　came　too　late。　The　undesirable　and　radical　element　in　many　communities　gained　control　of　local　assemblies；　and　the　conservatism　and　intelligence　of　the　national　leaders　became　merely　a　shield　for　the　rowdy　and　the　ignorant　who　brought　the　entire　order　into　popular　disfavor。

The　crisis　came　in　1886。　In　the　early　months　of　this　turbulent　year　there　were　nearly　five　hundred　labor　disputes；　most　of　them　involving　an　advance　in　wages。　An　epidemic　of　strikes　then　spread　over　the　country；　many　of　them　actually　conducted　by　the　Knights　of　Labor　and　all　of　them　associated　in　the　public　mind　with　that　order。　One　of　the　most　important　of　these　occurred　on　the　Southwestern　Railroad。　In　the　preceding　year；　the　Knights　had　increased　their　lodges　in　St。　Louis　from　five　to　thirty；　and　these　were　under　the　domination　of　a　coarse　and　ruthless　district　leader。　When　in　February；　1886；　a　mechanic；　working　in　the　shops　of　the　Texas　and　Pacific　Railroad　at　Marshall；　Texas；　was　discharged　for　cause　and　the　road　refused　to　reinstate　him；　a　strike　ensued　which　spread　over　the　entire　six　thousand　miles　of　the　Gould　system；　and　St。　Louis　became　the　center　of　the　tumult。　After　nearly　two　months　of　violence；　the　outbreak　ended　in　the　complete　collapse　of　the　strikers。　This　result　was　doubly　damaging　to　the　Knights　of　Labor；　for　they　had　officially　taken　charge　of　the　strike　and　were　censured　on　the　one　hand　for　their　conduct　of　the　struggle　and　on　the　other　for　the　defeat　which　they　had　sustained。

In　the　same　year；　against　the　earnest　advice　of　the　national　leaders　of　the　Knights　of　Labor；　the　employees　of　the　Third　Avenue　Railway　in　New　York　began　a　strike　which　lasted　many　months　and　which　was　characterized　by　such　violence　that　policemen　were　detailed　to　guard　every　car　leaving　the　barns。　In　Chicago　the　freight　handlers　struck；　and　some　60；000　workmen　stopped　work　in　sympathy。　On　the　3d　of　May；　at　the　McCormick　Harvester　Works；　several　strikers　were　wounded　in　a　tussle　with　the　police。　On　the　following　day　a　mass　meeting　held　in　Haymarket　Square；　Chicago；　was　harangued　by　a　number　of　anarchists。　When　the　police　attempted　to　disperse　the　mob；　guns　were　fired　at　the　officers　of　the　law　and　a　bomb　was　hurled　into　their　throng；　killing　seven　and　wounding　sixty。　For　this　crime　seven　anarchists　were　indicted；　found　guilty；　and　sentenced　to　be　hanged。　The　Knights　of　Labor　passed　resolutions　asking　clemency　for　these　murderers　and　thereby　grossly　offended　public　opinion；　and　that　at　a　time　when　public　opinion　was　frightened　by　these　outrages；　angered　by　the　disclosures　of　brazen　plotting；　and　upset　by　the　sudden　consciousness　that　the　immunity　of　the　United　States　from　the　red　terror　of　Europe　was　at　an　end。

Powderly　and　the　more　conservative　national　officers　who　were　opposed　to　these　radical　machinations　were　strong　enough　in　the　Grand　Lodge　in　the　following　year　to　suppress　a　vote　of　sympathy　for　the　condemned　anarchists。　The　radicals　thereupon　seceded　from　the　organization。　This　outcome；　however；　did　not　restore　the　order　to　the　confidence　of　the　public；　and　its　strength　now　rapidly　declined。　A　loss　of