the armies of labor-第11部分

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


restore　the　order　to　the　confidence　of　the　public；　and　its　strength　now　rapidly　declined。　A　loss　of　300；000　members　for　the　year　1888　was　reported。　Early　in　the　nineties；　financial　troubles　compelled　the　sale　of　the　Philadelphia　headquarters　of　the　Knights　of　Labor　and　the　removal　to　more　modest　quarters　in　Washington。　A　remnant　of　members　still　retain　an　organization；　but　it　is　barely　a　shadow　of　the　vast　army　of　Knights　who　at　one　time　so　hopefully　carried　on　a　crusade　in　every　center　of　industry。　It　was　not　merely　the　excesses　of　the　lawless　but　the　multiplicity　of　strikes　which　alienated　public　sympathy。　Powderly's　repeated　warnings　that　strikes；　in　and　of　themselves；　were　destructive　of　the　stable　position　of　labor　were　shown　to　be　prophetic。

These　excesses；　however；　were　forcing　upon　the　public　the　idea　that　it　too　had　not　only　an　interest　but　a　right　and　a　duty　in　labor　disputes。　Methods　of　arbitration　and　conciliation　were　now　discussed　in　every　legislature。　In　1883　the　House　of　Representatives　established　a　standing　committee　on　labor。　In　1884　a　national　Bureau　of　Labor　was　created　to　gather　statistical　information。　In　1886　President　Cleveland　sent　to　Congress　a　message　which　has　become　historic　as　the　first　presidential　message　devoted　to　labor。　In　this　he　proposed　the　creation　of　a　board　of　labor　commissioners　who　should　act　as　official　arbiters　in　labor　disputes；　but　Congress　was　unwilling　at　that　time　to　take　so　advanced　a　step。　In　1888；　however；　it　enacted　a　law　providing　for　the　settlement　of　railway　labor　disputes　by　arbitration；　upon　agreement　of　both　parties。

Arbitration　signifies　a　judicial　attitude　of　mind；　a　judgment　based　on　facts。　These　facts　are　derived　from　specific　conditions　and　do　not　grow　out　of　broad　generalizations。　Arbitral　tribunals　are　created　to　decide　points　in　dispute；　not　philosophies　of　human　action。　The　businesslike　organization　of　the　new　trade　union　could　as　readily　adapt　itself　to　arbitration　as　it　had　already　adapted　itself；　in　isolated　instances；　to　collective　bargaining。　A　new　stage　had　therefore　been　reached　in　the　labor　movement。



CHAPTER　V。　FEDERATION

Experience　and　events　had　now　paved　the　way　for　that　vast　centralization　of　industry　which　characterizes　the　business　world　of　the　present　era。　The　terms　sugar；　coffee；　steel；　tobacco；　oil；　acquire　on　the　stock　exchange　a　new　and　precise　meaning。　Seventy…five　per　cent　of　steel；　eighty…three　per　cent　of　petroleum；　ninety　per　cent　of　sugar　production　are　brought　under　the　control　of　industrial　combinations。　Nearly　one…fourth　of　the　wage…earners　of　America　are　employed　by　great　corporations。　But　while　financiers　are　talking　only　in　terms　of　millions；　while　super…organization　is　reaching　its　eager　fingers　into　every　industry；　and　while　the　units　of　business　are　becoming　national　in　scope；　the　workingman　himself　is　being　taught　at　last　to　rely　more　and　more　upon　group　action　in　his　endeavor　to　obtain　better　wages　and　working　conditions。　He　is　taught　also　to　widen　the　area　of　his　organization　and　to　intensify　its　efforts。　So；　while　the　public　reads　in　the　daily　and　periodical　press　about　the　oil　trust　and　the　coffee　trust；　it　is　also　being　admonished　against　a　labor　trust　and　against　two　personages；　both　symbols　of　colossal　economic　unrestthe　promoter；　or　the　stalking　horse　of　financial　enterprise；　and　the　walking　delegate；　or　the　labor　union　representative　and　only　too　frequently　the　advance　agent　of　bitterness　and　revenge。

In　response　to　the　call　of　the　hour　there　appeared　the　American　Federation　of　Labor；　frequently　called　in　these　later　days　the　labor　trust。　The　Federation　was　first　suggested　at　Terre　Haute；　Indiana；　on　August　2；　1881；　at　a　convention　called　by　the　Knights　of　Industry　and　the　Amalgamated　Labor　Union；　two　secret　societies　patterned　after　the　model　common　at　that　period。　The　Amalgamated　Union　was　composed　largely　of　disaffected　Knights　of　Labor；　and　the　avowed　purpose　of　the　Convention　was　to　organize　a　new　secret　society　to　supplant　the　Knights。　But　the　trades　union　element　predominated　and　held　up　the　British　Trades　Union　and　its　powerful　annual　congress　as　a　model。　At　this　meeting　the　needs　of　intensive　local　organization；　of　trades　autonomy；　and　of　comprehensive　team　work　were　foreseen；　and　from　the　discussion　there　grew　a　plan　for　a　second　convention。　With　this　meeting；　which　was　held　at　Pittsburgh　in　November；　1881；　the　actual　work　of　the　new　association　began　under　the　name；　〃The　Federation　of　Organized　Trades　and　Labor　Unions　of　the　United　States　of　America　and　Canada。〃

When　this　Federation　learned　that　a　convention　representing　independent　trade　unions　was　called　to　meet　in　Columbus；　Ohio；　in　December；　1886；　it　promptly　altered　its　arrangements　for　its　own　annual　session　so　that　it；　too；　met　at　the　same　time　and　place。　Thereupon　the　Federation　effected　a　union　with　this　independent　body；　which　represented　twenty…five　organizations。　The　new　organization　was　called　the　American　Federation　of　Labor。　Until　1889；　this　was　considered　as　the　first　annual　meeting　of　the　new　organization；　but　in　that　year　the　Federation　resolved　that　its　〃continuity。。。be　recognized　and　dated　from　the　year　1881。〃

For　some　years　the　membership　increased　slowly；　but　in　1889　over　70；000　new　members　were　reported；　in　1900　over　200；000；　and　from　that　time　the　Federation　has　given　evidence　of　such　growth　and　prosperity　that　it　easily　is　the　most　powerful　labor　organization　America　has　known；　and　it　takes　its　place　by　the　side　of　the　British　Trades　Union　Congress　as　〃the　sovereign　organization　in　the　trade　union　world。〃　In　1917　its　membership　reached　91；371；434；　with　110　affiliated　national　unions；　representing　virtually　every　element　of　American　industry　excepting　the　railway　brotherhoods　and　a　dissenting　group　of　electrical　workers。

The　foundation　of　this　vast　organization　was　the　interest　of　particular　trades　rather　than　the　interests　of　labor　in　general。　Its　membership　is　made　up　〃of　such　Trade　and　Labor　Unions　as　shall　conform　to　its　rules　and　regulations。〃　The　preamble　of　the　Constitution　states：　〃We　therefore　declare　ourselves　in　favor　of　the　formation　of　a　thorough　federation；　embracing　every　trade　and　labor　organization　in　America　under　the　Trade　Union　System　of　organization。〃　The　Knights　of　Labor　had　endeavored　to　subordinate　the　parts　to　the　whole；　the　American　Federation　is　willing　to　bend　the　whole　to　the　needs　of　the　unit。　It　zealously　sends　out　its　organizers　to　form　local　unions　and　has　made　provision　that　〃any　seven　wage　workers　of　good　character　following　any　trade　or　calling〃　can　establish　a　local　union　with　federal　affiliations。

This　vast　and　potent　organization　is　based　upon　the　principle　of　trade　homogeneitynamely；　that　each　trade　is　primarily　interested　in　its　own　particular　affairs　but　that　all　trades　are　interested　in　those　general　matters　which　affect　all　laboring　men　as　a　class。　To　combine　effectually　these　dual　interests；　the　Federation　espouses　the　principle　of　home　rule　in　purely　local　matters　and　of　federal　supervision　in　all　general　matters。　It　combines；　with　a　great　singleness　of　purpose；　so　diverse　a　variety　of　details　that　it　touches　the　minutiae　of　every　trade　and　places　at　the　disposal　of　the　humblest　craftsman　or　laborer　the　tremendous　powers　of　its　national　influence。　While　highly　centralized　in　organization；　it　is　nevertheless　democratic　in　operation；　depending　generally　upon　the　referendum　for　its　sanctions。　It　is　flexible　in　its　parts　and　can　mobilize　both　its　heavy　artillery　and　its　cavalry　with　equal　readiness。　It　has　from　the　first　been　managed　with　skill；　energy；　and　great　adroitness。

The　supreme　authority　of　the　American　Federation　is　its　Annual　Convention　composed　of　delegates　chosen　from　national　and　international　unions；　from　state；　central；　and　local　trade　unions；　and　from　fraternal　organizations。　Experience　has　evolved　a　few　simple　rules　by　which　the　convention　is　safeguarded　against　political　and　factional　debate　and　against　the　interruptions　of　〃soreheads。〃　Besides　attending　to　the　necessary　routine；　the　Convention　elects　the　eleven　national　officers　who　form　the　executive　council　which　guides　the　administrative　details　of　the　organization。　The　funds　of　the　Federation　are　derived　from　a　per　capita　tax　on　the　membership。　The　official　organ　is　the　American　Federationist。　It　is　interesting　to　note　in　passing　that　over　two　hundred　and　forty　labor　periodicals　together　with　a　continual　stream　of　circulars　and　pamphlets　issue　from　the　trades　union　press。

The　Federation　is　divided　into　five　departments；　representing　the　most　important　groups　of　labor：　the　Building　Trades；　the　Metal　Trades；　Mining；　Railroad　Employees；　and　the　Union　Label　Trades。*　Each　of　these　departments　has　its　own　autonomous　sphere　of　action；　its　own　set　of　officers；　its　own　financial　arrangements；　its　own　administrative　details。　Each　holds　an　annual　convention；　in　the　same　place　and　week；　as　the　Federation。　Each　is　made　up　of　affiliated　unions　only　and　confines　itself　solely　to　the　interest　of　its　own　trades。　This　suborganization　serves　as　an　admirable　clearing　house　and　shock…absorber　and　succeeds　in　eliminating　much　of　the　friction　which　occurs　between　the　several　unions。

*　There　is　in　the　Federation；　however；　a　group　of　unions　not　affiliated　with　any　of　these　departments。


There　are　also　forty…three　state　branches　of　the　Federation；　each　with　its　own　separate　organization。　There　are　annual　state　conventions　whose　membership；　however；　is　not　always　restricted　to　unions　affiliated　with　the　American　Federation。　Some　of　these　state　organizations　antedate　the　Federation。

There　remain　the　local　unions；　into　personal　touch　with　which　each　member　comes。　There　were　in　1916　as　many　as　647　〃city　centrals；〃　the　term　used　to　designate　the　affiliation　of　the　unions　of　a　city。　The　city　centrals　are　smaller　replicas　of　the　state　federations　and　are　made　up　of　delegates　elected　by　the　individual　unions。　They　meet　at　stated　intervals　and　freely　discuss　questions　relating　to　the　welfare　of　organized　labor　in　general　as　well　as　to　local　labor　conditions　in　every　trade。　Indeed；　vigilance　seems　to　be　the　watchword　of　the　Central。　Organization；　wages；　trade　agreements；　and　the　attitude　of　public　officials　and　city　coun