the armies of labor-第12部分

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e　Central。　Organization；　wages；　trade　agreements；　and　the　attitude　of　public　officials　and　city　councils　which　even　remotely　might　affect　labor　rarely　escape　their　scrutiny。　This　oldest　of　all　the　groups　of　labor　organizations　remains　the　most　vital　part　of　the　Federation。　The　success　of　the　American　Federation　of　Labor　is　due　in　large　measure　to　the　crafty　generalship　of　its　President；　Samuel　Gompers；　one　of　the　most　astute　labor　leaders　developed　by　American　economic　conditions。　He　helped　organize　the　Federation；　carefully　nursed　it　through　its　tender　years；　and　boldly　and　unhesitatingly　used　its　great　power　in　the　days　of　its　maturity。　In　fact；　in　a　very　real　sense　the　Federation　is　Gompers；　and　Gompers　is　the　Federation。　Born　in　London　of　Dutch…Jewish　lineage；　on　January　27；　1850；　the　son　of　a　cigarmaker；　Samuel　Gompers　was　early　apprenticed　to　that　craft。　At　the　age　of　thirteen　he　went　to　New　York　City；　where　in　the　following　year　he　joined　the　first　cigar…makers'　union　organized　in　that　city。　He　enlisted　all　his　boyish　ardor　in　the　cause　of　the　trade　union　and；　after　he　arrived　at　maturity；　was　elected　successively　secretary　and　president　of　his　union。　The　local　unions　were；　at　that　time；　gingerly　feeling　their　way　towards　state　and　national　organization；　and　in　these　early　attempts　young　Gompers　was　active。　In　1887；　he　was　one　of　the　delegates　to　a　national　meeting　which　constituted　the　nucleus　of　what　is　now　the　Cigar…makers'　International　Union。

The　local　cigar…makers'　union　in　which　Gompers　received　his　necessary　preliminary　training　was　one　of　the　most　enlightened　and　compactly　organized　groups　of　American　labor。　It　was　one　of　the　first　American　Unions　to　adopt　in　an　efficient　manner　the　British　system　of　benefits　in　the　case　of　sickness；　death；　or　unemployment。　It　is　one　of　the　few　American　unions　that　persistently　encourages　skill　in　its　craft　and　intelligence　in　its　membership。　It　has　been　a　pioneer　in　collective　bargaining　and　in　arbitration。　It　has　been　conservatively　and　yet　enthusiastically　led　and　has　generally　succeeded　in　enlisting　the　respect　and　cooperation　of　employers。　This　union　has　been　the　kindergarten　and　preparatory　school　of　Samuel　Gompers；　who；　during　all　the　years　of　his　wide　activities　as　the　head　of　the　Federation　of　Labor；　has　retained　his　membership　in　his　old　local　and　has　acted　as　first　vice…president　of　the　Cigar…makers'　International。　These　early　experiences；　precedents；　and　enthusiasms　Gompers　carried　with　him　into　the　Federation　of　Labor。　He　was　one　of　the　original　group　of　trade　union　representatives　who　organized　the　Federation　in　1881。　In　the　following　year　he　was　its　President。　Since　1885　he　has；　with　the　exception　of　a　single　year；　been　annually　chosen　as　President。　During　the　first　years　the　Federation　was　very　weak；　and　it　was　even　doubtful　if　the　organization　could　survive　the　bitter　hostility　of　the　powerful　Knights　of　Labor。　It　could　pay　its　President　no　salary　and　could　barely　meet　his　expense　account。*　Gompers　played　a　large　part　in　the　complete　reorganization　of　the　Federation　in　1886。　He　subsequently　received　a　yearly　salary　of　1000　so　that　he　could　devote　all　of　his　time　to　the　cause。　From　this　year　forward　the　growth　of　the　Federation　was　steady　and　healthy。　In　the　last　decade　it　has　been　phenomenal。　The　earlier　policy　of　caution　has；　however；　not　been　discardedfor　caution　is　the　word　that　most　aptly　describes　the　methods　of　Gompers。　From　the　first；　he　tested　every　step　carefully；　like　a　wary　mountaineer；　before　he　urged　his　organization　to　follow。　From　the　beginning　Gompers　has　followed　three　general　lines　of　policy。　First；　he　has　built　the　imposing　structure　of　his　Federation　upon　the　autonomy　of　the　constituent　unions。　This　is　the　secret　of　the　united　enthusiasm　of　the　Federation。　It　is　the　Anglo…Saxon　instinct　for　home　rule　applied　to　trade　union　politics。　In　the　tentative　years　of　its　early　struggles；　the　Federation　could　hope　for　survival　only　upon　the　suffrance　of　the　trade　union；　and　today；　when　the　Federation　has　become　powerful；　its　potencies　rest　upon　the　same　foundation。

*　In　one　of　the　early　years　this　was　13。


Secondly；　Gompers　has　always　advocated　frugality　in　money　matters。　His　Federation　is　powerful　but　not　rich。　Its　demands　upon　the　resources　of　the　trade　unions　have　always　been　moderate；　and　the　salaries　paid　have　been　modest。*　When　the　Federation　erected　a　new　building　for　its　headquarters　in　Washington　a　few　years　ago；　it　symbolized　in　its　architecture　and　equipment　this　modest　yet　adequate　and　substantial　financial　policy。　American　labor　unions　have　not　yet　achieved　the　opulence；　ambitions；　and　splendors　of　the　guilds　of　the　Middle　Ages　and　do　not　yet　direct　their　activities　from　splendid　guild　halls。

*　Before　1899　the　annual　income　of　the　Federation　was　less　than　25；000；　in　1901　it　reached　the　100；000　mark；　and　since　1905　it　has　exceeded　200；000。


In　the　third　place；　Gompers　has　always　insisted　upon　the　democratic　methods　of　debate　and　referendum　in　reaching　important　decisions。　However　arbitrary　and　intolerant　his　impulses　may　have　been；　and　however　dogmatic　and　narrow　his　conclusions　in　regard　to　the　relation　of　labor　to　society　and　towards　the　employer　（and　his　Dutch　inheritance　gives　him　great　obstinacy）；　he　has　astutely　refrained　from　too　obviously　bossing　his　own　organization。

With　this　sagacity　of　leadership　Gompers　has　combined　a　fearlessness　that　sometimes　verges　on　brazenness。　He　has　never　hesitated　to　enter　a　contest　when　it　seemed　prudent　to　him　to　do　so。　He　crossed　swords　with　Theodore　Roosevelt　on　more　than　one　occasion　and　with　President　Eliot　of　Harvard　in　a　historic　newspaper　controversy　over　trade　union　exclusiveness。　He　has　not　been　daunted　by　conventions；　commissions；　courts；　congresses；　or　public　opinion。　During　the　long　term　of　his　Federation　presidency；　which　is　unparalleled　in　labor　history　and　alone　is　conclusive　evidence　of　his　executive　skill；　scarcely　a　year　has　passed　without　some　dramatic　incident　to　cast　the　searchlight　of　publicity　upon　hima　court　decision；　a　congressional　inquiry；　a　grand　jury　inquisition；　a　great　strike；　a　nation…wide　boycott；　a　debate　with　noted　public　men；　a　political　maneuver；　or　a　foreign　pilgrimage。　Whenever　a　constituent　union　in　the　Federation　has　been　the　object　of　attack；　he　has　jumped　into　the　fray　and　has　rarely　emerged　humiliated　from　the　encounter。　This　is　the　more　surprising　when　one　recalls　that　he　possesses　the　limitations　of　the　zealot　and　the　dogmatism　of　the　partisan。

One　of　the　most　important　functions　of　Gompers　has　been　that　of　national　lobbyist　for　the　Federation。　He　was　one　of　the　earliest　champions　of　the　eight…hour　day　and　the　Saturday　half…holiday。　He　has　energetically　espoused　Federal　child　labor　legislation；　the　restriction　of　immigration；　alien　contract　labor　laws；　and　employers'　liability　laws。　He　advocated　the　creation　of　a　Federal　Department　of　Labor　which　has　recently　developed　into　a　cabinet　secretariat。　His　legal　bete　noire；　however；　was　the　Sherman　Anti…Trust　Law　as　applied　to　labor　unions。　For　many　years　he　fought　vehemently　for　an　amending　act　exempting　the　laboring　class　from　the　rigors　of　that　famous　statute。　President　Roosevelt　with　characteristic　candor　told　a　delegation　of　Federation　officials　who　called　on　him　to　enlist　his　sympathy　in　their　attempt；　that　he　would　enforce　the　law　impartially　against　lawbreakers；　rich　and　poor　alike。　Roosevelt　recommended　to　Congress　the　passage　of　an　amendment　exempting　〃combinations　existing　for　and　engaged　in　the　promotion　of　innocent　and　proper　purposes。〃　An　exempting　bill　was　passed　by　Congress　but　was　vetoed　by　President　Taft　on　the　ground　that　it　was　class　legislation。　Finally；　during　President　Wilson's　administration；　the　Federation　accomplished　its　purpose；　first　indirectly　by　a　rider　on　an　appropriation　bill；　then　directly　by　the　Clayton　Act；　which　specifically　declared　labor　combinations；　instituted　for　the　〃purpose　of　mutual　help　and。。。not　conducted　for　profit；〃　not　to　be　in　restraint　of　trade。　Both　measures　were　signed　by　the　President。　Encouraged　by　their　success；　the　Federation　leaders　have　moved　with　a　renewed　energy　against　the　other　legal　citadel　of　their　antagonists；　the　use　of　the　injunction　in　strike　cases。

Gompers　has　thus　been　the　political　watchman　of　the　labor　interests。　Nothing　pertaining；　even　remotely；　to　labor　conditions　escapes　the　vigilance　of　his　Washington　office。　During　President　Wilson's　administration；　Gompers's　influence　achieved　a　power　second　to　none　in　the　political　field；　owing　partly　to　the　political　power　of　the　labor　vote　which　he　ingeniously　marshalled；　partly　to　the　natural　inclination　of　the　dominant　political　party；　and　partly　to　the　strategic　position　of　labor　in　the　war　industries。

The　Great　War　put　an　unprecedented　strain　upon　the　American　Federation　of　Labor。　In　every　center　of　industry　laborers　of　foreign　birth　early　showed　their　racial　sympathies；　and　under　the　stimuli　of　the　intriguing　German　and　Austrian　ambassadors　sinister　plots　for　crippling　munitions　plants　and　the　shipping　industries　were　hatched　everywhere。　Moreover；　workingmen　became　restive　under　the　burden　of　increasing　prices；　and　strikes　for　higher　wages　occurred　almost　daily。

At　the　beginning　of　the　War；　the　officers　of　the　Federation　maintained　a　calm　and　neutral　attitude　which　increased　in　vigilance　as　the　strain　upon　American　patience　and　credulity　increased。　As　soon　as　the　United　States　declared　war；　the　whole　energies　of　the　officials　of　the　Federation　were　cast　into　the　national　cause。　In　1917；　under　the　leadership　of　Gompers；　and　as　a　practical　antidote　to　the　I。W。W。　and　the　foreign　labor　and　pacifist　organization　known　as　The　People's　Council；　there　was　organized　The　American　Alliance　for　Labor　and　Democracy　in　order　〃to　Americanize　the　labor　movement。〃　Its　campaign　at　once　became　nation　wide。　Enthusiastic　meetings　were　held　in　the　great　manufacturing　centers；　stimulated　to　enthusiasm　by　the　incisive　eloquence　of　Gompers。　At　the　annual　convention　of　the　Federation　held　in　Buffalo　in　November；　1917；　full　endorsement　was　given　to　the　Alliance　by　a　vote　of　21；602　to　401。　In　its　formal　statement　the　Alliance　declared：　〃It　is　our　purpose　to　try；　by　educational　methods；　to　bring　a