the armies of labor-第14部分

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rs　and　Joiners　of　America。〃　A　similar　unification　has　taken　place　in　the　lumbering　industry。　When　the　shingle　weavers　formed　an　international　union　some　fifteen　years　ago；　they　limited　the　membership　〃to　the　men　employed　in　skilled　departments　of　the　shingle　trade。〃　In　1912　the　American　Federation　of　Labor　sanctioned　a　plan　for　including　in　one　organization　all　the　workers　in　the　lumber　industry；　both　skilled　and　unskilled。　This　is　a　far　cry　from　the　minute　trade　autocracy　taught　by　the　orthodox　unionist　thirty　years　ago。

Today　the　Federation　of　Labor　is　one　of　the　most　imposing　organizations　in　the　social　system　of　America。　It　reaches　the　workers　in　every　trade。　Every　contributor　to　the　physical　necessities　of　our　materialistic　civilization　has　felt　the　far…reaching　influence　of　confederated　power。　A　sense　of　its　strength　pervades　the　Federation。　Like　a　healthy；　self…conscious　giant；　it　stalks　apace　among　our　national　organizations。　Through　its　cautious　yet　pronounced　policy；　through　its　seeking　after　definite　results　and　excluding　all　economic　vagaries；　it　bids　fair　to　overcome　the　disputes　that　disturb　it　from　within　and　the　onslaughts　of　Socialism　and　of　Bolshevism　that　threaten　it　from　without。



CHAPTER　VI。　THE　TRADE　UNION

The　trade　union*　forms　the　foundation　upon　which　the　whole　edifice　of　the　American　Federation　of　Labor　is　built。　Like　the　Federation；　each　particular　trade　union　has　a　tripartite　structure：　there　is　first　the　national　body　called　the　Union；　the　International；　the　General　Union；　or　the　Grand　Lodge；　there　is　secondly　the　district　division　or　council；　which　is　merely　a　convenient　general　union　in　miniature；　and　finally　there　is　the　local　individual　union；　usually　called　〃the　local。〃　Some　unions；　such　as　the　United　Mine　Workers；　have　a　fourth　division　or　subdistrict；　but　this　is　not　the　general　practice。

*　The　term　〃trade　union〃　is　used　here　in　its　popular　sense；　embracing　labor；　trade；　and　industrial　unions；　unless　otherwise　specified。


The　sovereign　authority　of　a　trade　union　is　its　general　convention；　a　delegate　body　meeting　at　stated　times。　Some　unions　meet　annually；　some　biennially；　some　triennially；　and　a　few　determine　by　referendum　when　the　convention　is　to　meet。　Sometimes　a　long　interval　elapses：　the　granite　cutters；　for　instance；　held　no　convention　between　1880　and　1912；　and　the　cigar…makers；　after　a　convention　in　1896；　did　not　meet　for　sixteen　years。　The　initiative　and　referendum　are；　in　some　of　the　more　compact　unions；　taking　the　place　of　the　general　convention；　while　the　small　executive　council　insures　promptness　of　administrative　action。

The　convention　elects　the　general　officers。　Of　these　the　president　is　the　most　conspicuous；　for　he　is　the　field　marshal　of　the　forces　and　fills　a　large　place　in　the　public　eye　when　a　great　strike　is　called。　It　was　in　this　capacity　that　John　Mitchell　rose　to　sudden　eminence　during　the　historic　anthracite　strike　in　1902；　and　George　W。　Perkins　of　the　cigar…makers'　union　achieved　his　remarkable　hold　upon　the　laboring　people。　As　the　duties　of　the　president　of　a　union　have　increased；　it　has　become　the　custom　to　elect　numerous　vice…presidents　to　relieve　him。　Each　of　these　has　certain　specific　functions　to　perform；　but　all　remain　the　president's　aides。　One；　for　instance；　may　be　the　financier；　another　the　strike　agent；　another　the　organizer；　another　the　agitator。　With　such　a　group　of　virtual　specialists　around　a　chieftain；　a　union　has　the　immense　advantage　of　centralized　command　and　of　highly　organized　leadership。　The　tendency；　especially　among　the　more　conservative　unions；　is　to　reelect　these　officers　year　after　year。　The　president　of　the　Carpenters'　Union　held　his　office　for　twenty　years；　and　John　Mitchell　served　the　miners　as　president　ten　years。　Under　the　immediate　supervision　of　the　president；　an　executive　board　composed　of　all　the　officers　guides　the　destinies　of　the　union。　When　this　board　is　not　occupied　with　the　relations　of　the　men　to　their　employers；　it　gives　its　judicial　consideration　to　the　more　delicate　and　more　difficult　questions　of　inter…union　comity　and　of　local　differences。

The　local　union　is　the　oldest　labor　organization；　and　a　few　existing　locals　can　trace　their　origin　as　far　back　as　the　decade　preceding　the　Civil　War。　Many　more　antedate　the　organization　of　the　Federation。　Not　a　few　of　these　almost　historic　local　unions　have　refused　to　surrender　their　complete　independence　by　affiliating　with　those　of　recent　origin；　but　they　have　remained　merely　isolated　independent　locals　with　very　little　general　influence。　The　vast　majority　of　local　unions　are　members　of　the　national　trades　union　and　of　the　Federation。

The　local　union　is　the　place　where　the　laborer　comes　into　direct　personal　contact　with　this　powerful　entity　that　has　become　such　a　factor　in　his　daily　life。　Here　he　can　satisfy　that　longing　for　the　recognition　of　his　point　of　view　denied　him　in　the　great　factory　and　here　he　can　meet　men　of　similar　condition；　on　terms　of　equality；　to　discuss　freely　and　without　fear　the　topics　that　interest　him　most。　There　is　an　immense　psychic　potency　in　this　intimate　association　of　fellow　workers；　especially　in　some　of　the　older　unions　which　have　accumulated　a　tradition。

It　is　in　the　local　union　that　the　real　life　of　the　labor　organization　must　be　nourished；　and　the　statesmanship　of　the　national　leaders　is　directed　to　maintaining　the　greatest　degree　of　local　autonomy　consistent　with　the　interests　of　national　homogeneity。　The　individual　laborer　thus　finds　himself　a　member　of　a　group　of　his　fellows　with　whom　he　is　personally　acquainted；　who　elect　their　own　officers；　to　a　large　measure　fix　their　own　dues；　transact　their　own　routine　business；　discipline　their　own　members；　and　whenever　possible　make　their　own　terms　of　employment　with　their　employers。　The　local　unions　are　obliged　to　pay　their　tithe　into　the　greater　treasury；　to　make　stated　reports；　to　appoint　a　certain　roster　of　committees；　and　in　certain　small　matters　to　conform　to　the　requirements　of　the　national　union。　On　the　whole；　however；　they　are　independent　little　democracies　confederated；　with　others　of　their　kind；　by　means　of　district　and　national　organizations。

The　unions　representing　the　different　trades　vary　in　structure　and　spirit。　There　is　an　immense　difference　between　the　temper　of　the　tumultuous　structural　iron　workers　and　the　contemplative　cigar…makers；　who　often　hire　one　of　their　number　to　read　to　them　while　engaged　in　their　work；　the　favorite　authors　being　in　many　instances　Ruskin　and　Carlyle。　Some　unions　are　more　successful　than　others　in　collective　bargaining。　Martin　Fox；　the　able　leader　of　the　iron　moulders；　signed　one　of　the　first　trade　agreements　in　America　and　fixed　the　tradition　for　his　union；　and　the　shoemakers；　as　well　as　most　of　the　older　unions　are　fairly　well　accustomed　to　collective　bargaining。　In　matters　of　discipline；　too；　the　unions　vary。　Printers　and　certain　of　the　more　skilled　trades　find　it　easier　to　enforce　their　regulations　than　do　the　longshoremen　and　unions　composed　of　casual　foreign　laborers。　In　size　also　the　unions　of　the　different　trades　vary。　In　1910　three　had　a　membership　of　over　100；000　each。　Of　these　the　United　Mine　Workers　reached　a　total　of　370；800；　probably　the　largest　trades　union　in　the　world。　The　majority　of　the　unions　have　a　membership　between　1000　and　10；000；　the　average　for　the　entire　number　being　5000；　but　the　membership　fluctuates　from　year　to　year；　according　to　the　conditions　of　labor；　and　is　usually　larger　in　seasons　of　contest。　Fluctuation　in　membership　is　most　evident　in　the　newer　unions　and　in　the　unskilled　trades。　The　various　unions　differ　also　in　resources。　In　some；　especially　those　composed　largely　of　foreigners；　the　treasury　is　chronically　empty；　yet　at　the　other　extreme　the　mine　workers　distributed　1；890；000　in　strike　benefits　in　1902　and　had　750；000　left　when　the　board　of　arbitration　sent　the　workers　back　into　the　mines。

The　efforts　of　the　unions　to　adjust　themselves　to　the　quickly　changing　conditions　of　modern　industries　are　not　always　successful。　Old　trade　lines　are　instantly　shifting；　creating　the　most　perplexing　problem　of　inter…union　amity。　Over　two　score　jurisdictional　controversies　appear　for　settlement　at　each　annual　convention　of　the　American　Federation。　The　Association　of　Longshoremen　and　the　Seamen's　Union；　for　example；　both　claim　jurisdiction　over　employees　in　marine　warehouses。　The　cigar…makers　and　the　stogie…makers　have　also　long　been　at　swords'　points。　Who　shall　have　control　over　the　coopers　who　work　in　breweriesthe　Brewery　Workers　or　the　Coopers'　Union？　Who　shall　adjust　the　machinery　in　elevatorsthe　Machinists　or　Elevator　Constructors？　Is　the　operator　of　a　linotype　machine　a　typesetter？　So　plasterers　and　carpenters；　blacksmiths　and　structural　iron　workers；　printing　pressmen　and　plate　engravers；　hod　carriers　and　cement　workers；　are　at　loggerheads；　the　electrification　of　a　railway　creates　a　jurisdictional　problem　between　the　electrical　railway　employees　and　the　locomotive　engineers；　and　the　marble　workers　and　the　plasterers　quarrel　as　to　the　setting　of　imitation　marble。　These　quarrels　regarding　the　claims　of　rival　unions　reveal　the　weakness　of　the　Federation　as　an　arbitral　body。　There　is　no　centralized　authority　to　impose　a　standard　or　principle　which　could　lead　to　the　settlement　of　such　disputes。　Trade　jealousy　has　overcome　the　suggestions　of　the　peacemakers　that　either　the　nature　of　the　tools　used；　or　the　nature　of　the　operation；　or　the　character　of　the　establishment　be　taken　as　the　basis　of　settlement。

When　the　Federation　itself　fails　as　a　peacemaker；　it　cannot　be　expected　that　locals　will　escape　these　controversies。　There　are　many　examples；　often　ludicrous；　of　petty　jealousies　and　trade　rivalries。　The　man　who　tried　to　build　a　brick　house；　employing　union　bricklayers　to　lay　the　brick　and　union　painters　to　paint　the　brick　walls；　found　to　his　loss　that　such　painting　was　considered　a　bricklayer's　job　by　the　bricklayers'　union；　who　charged　a　higher　wage　than　the　painters　would　have　done。　It　would　have　relieved　him　to　have　the　two　unions　amalgamate。　And　this　in　general　has　become　a　real　way　out　of　the　difficulty。　For　instance；　a　dispute　between　the　Steam　and　Hot　Water　Fitters　and　the　Plumbers　was　settled　by　an　amal