the armies of labor-第15部分

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　instance；　a　dispute　between　the　Steam　and　Hot　Water　Fitters　and　the　Plumbers　was　settled　by　an　amalgamation　called　the　United　Association　of　Journeymen　Plumbers；　Gas　Fitters；　Steam　Fitters；　and　Steam　Fitters'　Helpers；　which　is　now　affiliated　with　the　Federation。　But　the　International　Association　of　Steam；　Hot　Water；　and　Power　Pipe　Fitters　and　Helpers　is　not　affiliated；　and　interunion　war　results。　The　older　unions；　however；　have　a　stabilizing　influence　upon　the　newer；　and　a　genuine　conservatism　such　as　characterizes　the　British　unions　is　becoming　more　apparent　as　age　solidifies　custom　and　lends　respect　to　by…laws　and　constitutions。　But　even　time　cannot　obviate　the　seismic　effects　of　new　inventions；　and　shifts　in　jurisdictional　matters　are　always　imminent。　The　dominant　policy　of　the　trade　union　is　to　keep　its　feet　on　the　earth；　no　matter　where　its　head　may　be；　to　take　one　step　at　a　time；　and　not　to　trouble　about　the　future　of　society。　This　purpose；　which　has　from　the　first　been　the　prompter　of　union　activity；　was　clearly　enunciated　in　the　testimony　of　Adolph　Strasser；　a　converted　socialist；　one　of　the　leading　trade　unionists；　and　president　of　the　Cigar…makers'　Union；　before　a　Senate　Committee　in　1883：

Chairman：　You　are　seeking　to　improve　home　matters　first？

Witness：　Yes　sir；　I　look　first　to　the　trade　I　represent：　I　look　first　to　cigars；　to　the　interests　of　men；　who　employ　me　to　represent　their　interests。

Chairman：　I　was　only　asking　you　in　regard　to　your　ultimate　ends。

Witness：　We　have　no　ultimate　ends。　We　are　going　on　from　day　to　day。　We　are　fighting　only　for　immediate　objects；　objects　that　can　be　realized　in　a　few　years。

Chairman：　You　want　something　better　to　eat　and　to　wear；　and　better　houses　to　live　in？

Witness：　Yes；　we　want　to　dress　better　and　to　live　better；　and　become　better　citizens　generally。

Chairman：　I　see　that　you　are　a　little　sensitive　lest　it　should　be　thought　that　you　are　a　mere　theorizer。　I　do　not　look　upon　you　in　that　light　at　all。

Witness：　Well；　we　say　in　our　constitution　that　we　are　opposed　to　theorists；　and　I　have　to　represent　the　organization　here。　We　are　all　practical　men。

This　remains　substantially　the　trade　union　platform　today。　Trade　unionists　all　aim　to　be　〃practical　men。〃

The　trade　union　has　been　the　training　school　for　the　labor　leader；　that　comparatively　new　and　increasingly　important　personage　who　is　a　product　of　modern　industrial　society。　Possessed　of　natural　aptitudes；　he　usually　passes　by　a　process　of　logical　evolution；　through　the　important　committees　and　offices　of　his　local　into　the　wider　sphere　of　the　national　union；　where　as　president　or　secretary；　he　assumes　the　leadership　of　his　group。　Circumstances　and　conditions　impose　a　heavy　burden　upon　him；　and　his　tasks　call　for　a　variety　of　gifts。　Because　some　particular　leader　lacked　tact　or　a　sense　of　justice　or　some　similar　quality；　many　a　labor　maneuver　has　failed；　and　many　a　labor　organization　has　suffered　in　the　public　esteem。　No　other　class　relies　so　much　upon　wise　leadership　as　does　the　laboring　class。　The　average　wage…earner　is　without　experience　in　confronting　a　new　situation　or　trained　and　superior　minds。　From　his　tasks　he　has　learned　only　the　routine　of　his　craft。　When　he　is　faced　with　the　necessity　of　prompt　action；　he　is　therefore　obliged　to　depend　upon　his　chosen　captains　for　results。

In　America　these　leaders　have　risen　from　the　rank　and　file　of　labor。　Their　education　is　limited。　The　great　majority　have　only　a　primary　schooling。　Many　have　supplemented　this　meager　stock　of　learning　by　rather　wide　but　desultory　reading　and　by　keen　observation。　A　few　have　read　law；　and　some　have　attended　night　schools。　But　all　have　graduated　from　the　University　of　Life。　Many　of　them　have　passed　through　the　bitterest　poverty；　and　all　have　been　raised　among　toilers　and　from　infancy　have　learned　to　sympathize　with　the　toiler's　point　of　view。*　They　are　therefore　by　training　and　origin　distinctly　leaders　of　a　class；　with　the　outlook　upon　life；　the　prejudices；　the　limitations；　and　the　fervent　hopes　of　that　class。

*　A　well…known　labor　leader　once　said　to　the　writer：　〃No　matter　how　much　you　go　around　among　laboring　people；　you　will　never　really　understand　us　unless　you　were　brought　up　among　us。　There　is　a　real　gulf　between　your　way　of　looking　on　life　and　ours。　You　can　be　only　an　investigator　or　an　intellectual　sympathizer　with　my　people。　But　you　cannot　really　understand　our　viewpoint。〃　Whatever　of　misconception　there　may　be　in　this　attitude；　it　nevertheless　marks　the　actual　temper　of　the　average　wage…earner；　in　spite　of　the　fact　that　in　America　many　employers　have　risen　from　the　ranks　of　labor。


In　a　very　real　sense　the　American　labor　leader　is　the　counterpart　of　the　American　business　man　intensively　trained；　averse　to　vagaries；　knowing　thoroughly　one　thing　and　only　one　thing；　and　caring　very　little　for　anything　else。

This　comparative　restriction　of　outlook　marks　a　sharp　distinction　between　American　and　British　labor　leaders。　In　Britain　such　leadership　is　a　distinct　career　for　which　a　young　man　prepares　himself。　He　is　usually　fairly　well　educated；　for　not　infrequently　he　started　out　to　study　for　the　law　or　the　ministry　and　was　sidetracked　by　hard　necessity。　A　few　have　come　into　the　field　from　journalism。　As　a　result；　the　British　labor　leader　has　a　certain　veneer　of　learning　and　puts　on　a　more　impressive　front　than　the　American。　For　example；　Britain　has　produced　Ramsey　MacDonald；　who　writes　books　and　makes　speeches　with　a　rare　grace；　John　Burns；　who　quotes　Shakespeare　or　recites　history　with　wonderful　fluency；　Keir　Hardie；　a　miner　from　the　ranks；　who　was　possessed　of　a　charming　poetic　fancy；　Philip　Snowden；　who　displays　the　spiritual　qualities　of　a　seer；　and　John　Henderson；　who　combines　philosophical　power　with　skill　in　dialectics。　On　the　other　hand；　the　rank　and　file　of　American　labor　is　more　intelligent　and　alert　than　that　of　British　labor；　and　the　American　labor　leader　possesses　a　greater　capacity　for　intensive　growth　and　is　perhaps　a　better　specialist　at　rough　and　tumble　fighting　and　bargaining　than　his　British　colleague。*

*　The　writer　recalls　spending　a　day　in　one　of　the　Midland　manufacturing　towns　with　the　secretary　of　a　local　cooperative　society；　a　man　who　was　steeped　in　Bergson's　philosophy　and　talked　on　local　botany　and　geology　as　fluently　as　on　local　labor　conditions。　It　would　be　difficult　to　duplicate　this　experience　in　America。


In　a　very　real　sense　every　trade　union　is　typified　by　some　aggressive　personality。　The　Granite　Cutters'　National　Union　was　brought　into　active　being　in　1877　largely　through　the　instrumentality　of　James　Duncan；　a　rugged　fighter　who；　having　federated　the　locals；　set　out　to　establish　an　eight…hour　day　through　collective　bargaining　and　to　settle　disputes　by　arbitration。　He　succeeded　in　forming　a　well…disciplined　force　out　of　the　members　of　his　craft；　and　even　the　employers　did　not　escape　the　touch　of　his　rod。

The　Glassblowers'　Union　was　saved　from　disruption　by　Dennis　Hayes；　who；　as　president　of　the　national　union；　reorganized　the　entire　force　in　the　years　1896…99；　unionized　a　dozen　of　the　largest　glass　producing　plants　in　the　United　States　and　succeeded　in　raising　the　wages　fifteen　per　cent。　He　introduced　methods　of　arbitration　and　collective　agreements　and　established　a　successful　system　of　insurance。

James　O'Connell；　the　president　of　the　International　Association　of　Machinists；　led　his　organization　safely　through　the　panic　of　1893；　reorganized　it　upon　a　broader　basis；　and　introduced　sick　benefits。　In　1901　after　a　long　and　wearisome　dickering　with　the　National　Metal　Trades　Association；　a　shorter　day　was　agreed　upon；　but；　as　the　employers　would　not　agree　to　a　ten…hour　wage　for　a　nine…hour　day；　O'Connell　led　his　men　out　on　a　general　strike　and　won。

Thomas　Kidd；　secretary　of　the　Wood…Workers'　International　Union；　was　largely　responsible　for　the　agreement　made　with　the　manufacturers　in　1897　for　the　establishment　of　a　minimum　wage　of　fifteen　cents　an　hour　for　a　ten…hour　day；　a　considerable　advance　over　the　average　wage　paid　up　to　that　time。　Kidd　was　the　object　of　severe　attacks　in　various　localities；　and　in　Oshkosh；　Wisconsin；　where　labor　riots　took　place　for　the　enforcement　of　the　Union　demands；　he　was　arrested　for　conspiracy　but　acquitted　by　the　trial　jury。

When　the　Amalgamated　Association　of　Iron　and　Steel　Workers　lost　their　strike　at　Homestead；　Pennsylvania；　in　1892；　the　union　was　thought　to　be　dead。　It　was　quietly　regalvanized　into　activity；　however；　by　Theodore　Schaffer；　who　has　displayed　adroitness　in　managing　its　affairs　in　the　face　of　tremendous　opposition　from　the　great　steel　manufacturers　who　refuse　to　permit　their　shops　to　be　unionized。

The　International　Typographical　Union；　composed　of　an　unusually　intelligent　body　of　men；　owes　its　singular　success　in　collective　contracting　largely　to　James　M。　Lynch；　its　national　president。　The　great　newspapers　did　not　give　in　to　the　demands　of　the　union　without　a　series　of　struggles　in　which　Lynch　manipulated　his　forces　with　skill　and　tact。　Today　this　is　one　of　the　most　powerful　unions　in　the　country。

Entirely　different　was　the　material　out　of　which　D。J。　Keefe　formed　his　Union　of　Longshoremen；　Marine　and　Transport　Workers。　His　was　a　mass　of　unskilled　workers；　composed　of　many　nationalities　accustomed　to　rough　conditions；　and　not　easily　led。　Keefe；　as　president　of　their　International　Union；　has　had　more　difficulty　in　restraining　his　men　and　in　teaching　them　the　obligations　of　a　contract　than　any　other　leader。　At　least　on　one　occasion　he　employed　non…union　men　to　carry　out　the　agreement　which　his　recalcitrant　following　had　made　and　broken。

The　evolution　of　an　American　labor　leader　is　shown　at　its　best　in　the　career　of　John　Mitchell；　easily　the　most　influential　trade　unionist　of　this　generation。　He　was　born　on　February　4；　1870；　on　an　Illinois　farm；　but　at　two　years　of　age　he　lost　his　mother　and　at　four　his　father。　With　other　lads　of　his　neighborhood　he　shared　the　meager　privileges　of　the　school　terms　that　did　not　interfere　with　farm　work。　At　thirteen　he　was　in　the　coal　mines　in　Braidwood；　Illinois；　and　at　sixteen　he　was　the　outer　doorkeeper　in　the　local　lodge　of　the　Knights　of　Labor。　Eager　to　see　the　world；　he　now　began　a　period　of　wan