the armies of labor-第19部分

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Garretson　has　long　served　as　a　member　of　the　executive　committee　of　the　National　Civic　Federation　and　in　1919　was　appointed　by　President　Wilson　a　member　of　the　Federal　Commission　on　Industrial　Relations。　A　man　of　great　energy　and　force　of　character；　he　has　recently　assumed　a　leading　place　in　labor　union　activities。

In　addition　to　the　locomotive　engineers　and　the　conductors；　the　firemen　also　have　their　union。　Eleven　firemen　of　the　Erie　Railroad　organized　a　brotherhood　at　Port　Jervis；　New　York；　in　December；　1873；　but　it　was　a　fraternal　order　rather　than　a　trade　union。　In　1877；　the　year　of　the　great　railway　strike；　it　was　joined　by　the　International　Firemen's　Union；　an　organization　without　any　fraternal　or　insurance　features。　In　spite　of　this　amalgamation；　however；　the　growth　of　the　Brotherhood　was　very　slow。　Indeed；　so　unsatisfactory　was　the　condition　of　affairs　that　in　1879　the　order　took　an　unusual　step。　〃So　bitter　was　the　continued　opposition　of　railroad　officials　at　this　time；〃　relates　the　chronicler　of　the　Brotherhood　（in　some　sections　of　the　country　it　resulted　in　the　disbandment　of　the　lodges　and　the　depletion　of　membership）　〃that　it　was　decided；　in　order　to　remove　the　cause　of　such　opposition；　to　eliminate　the　protective　feature　of　the　organization。　With　a　view　to　this　end　a　resolution　was　adopted　ignoring　strikes。〃　This　is　one　of　the　few　recorded　retreats　of　militant　trade　unionism。　The　treasury　of　the　Brotherhood　was　so　depleted　that　it　was　obliged　to　call　upon　local　lodges　for　donations。　By　1885；　however；　the　order　had　sufficiently　recovered　to　assume　again　the　functions　of　a　labor　union　in　addition　to　its　fraternal　and　beneficiary　obligations。　The　days　of　its　greatest　hardships　were　over；　although　the　historic　strike　on　the　Burlington　lines　that　lasted　virtually　throughout　the　year　1888　and　the　Pullman　strike　in　1894　wrought　a　severe　strain　upon　its　staying　powers。　In　1906　the　enginemen　were　incorporated　into　the　order；　and　thenceforth　the　membership　grew　rapidly。　In　1913　a　joint　agreement　was　effected　with　the　Brotherhood　of　Locomotive　Engineers　whereby　the　two　organizations　could　work　together　〃on　a　labor　union　basis。〃　Today　men　operating　electric　engines　or　motor　or　gas　cars　on　lines　using　electricity　are　eligible　for　membership；　if　they　are　otherwise　qualified。　This　arrangement　does　not　interfere　with　unions　already　established　on　interurban　lines。

The　leadership　of　this　order　of　firemen　has　been　less　continuous；　though　scarcely　less　conspicuous；　than　that　of　the　other　brotherhoods。　Before　1886　the　Grand　Secretary　and　Treasurer　was　invested　with　greater　authority　than　the　grand　master；　and　in　this　position　Eugene　V。　Debs；　who　served　from　1881　to　1899；　and　Frank　W。　Arnold；　who　served　from　1893　to　1903；　were　potent　in　shaping　the　policies　of　the　Union。　There　have　been　seven　grand　masters　and　one　president　（the　name　now　used　to　designate　the　chief　officer）　since　1874。　Of　these　leaders　Frank　P。　Sargent　served　from　1886　until　1892；　when　he　was　appointed　Commissioner　General　of　Immigration　by　President　Roosevelt。　Since　1909；　William　S。　Carter　has　been　president　of　the　Brotherhood。　Born　in　Texas　in　1859；　he　began　railroading　at　nineteen　years　of　age　and　served　in　turn　as　fireman；　baggageman；　and　engineer。　Before　his　election　to　the　editorship　of　the　Firemen's　Magazine；　he　held　various　minor　offices　in　local　lodges。　Since　1894　he　has　served　the　order　successively　as　editor；　grand　secretary　and　treasurer；　and　president。　To　his　position　he　has　brought　an　intimate　knowledge　of　the　affairs　of　the　Union　as　well　as　a　varied　experience　in　practical　railroading。　Upon　the　entrance　of　America　into　the　Great　War；　President　Wilson　appointed　him　Director　of　the　Division　of　Labor　of　the　United　States　Railway　Administration。

Of　the　government　and　policy　of　the　firemen's　union　President　Carter　remarked：

〃This　Brotherhood　may　be　compared　to　a　state　in　a　republic　of　railway　unions；　maintaining　almost　complete　autonomy　in　its　own　affairs　yet　uniting　with　other　railway　brotherhoods　in　matters　of　mutual　concern　and　in　common　defense。　It　is　true　that　these　railway　brotherhoods　carry　the　principle　of　home　rule　to　great　lengths　and　have　acknowledged　no　common　head；　and　by　this　have　invited　the　criticism　from　those　who　believe。。。that　only　in　one　'big'　union　can　railway　employees　hope　for　improved　working　condition。。。。　That　in　union　there　is　strength；　no　one　will　deny；　but　in　any　confederation　of　forces　there　must　be　an　exchange　of　individual　rights　for　this　collective　power。　There　is　a　point　in　the　combining　of　working　people　in　labor　unions　where　the　loss　of　individual　rights　is　not　compensated　by　the　increased　power　of　the　masses　of　workers。〃

In　the　cautious　working　out　of　this　principle；　the　firemen　have　prospered　after　the　manner　of　their　colleagues　in　the　other　brotherhoods。　Their　membership　embraces　the　large　majority　of　their　craft。　From　the　date　of　the　establishment　of　their　beneficiary　fund　to　1918　a　total　of　21；860；103。00　has　been　paid　in　death　and　disability　claims　and　in　1918　the　amount　so　paid　was　1；538；207。00。　The　Firemen's　Magazine；　established　in　1876　and　now　published　from　headquarters　in　Cleveland；　is　indicative　of　the　ambitions　of　the　membership；　for　its　avowed　aim　is　to　〃make　a　specialty　of　educational　matter　for　locomotive　enginemen　and　other　railroad　employees。〃　An　attempt　was　even　made　in　1908　to　conduct　a　correspondence　school；　under　the　supervision　of　the　editor　and　manager　of　the　magazine；　but　after　three　years　this　project　was　discontinued　because　it　could　not　be　made　self…supporting。

The　youngest　of　the　railway　labor　organizations　is　the　Brotherhood　of　Trainmen；　organized　in　September；　1883；　at　Oneonta；　New　York。　Its　early　years　were　lean　and　filled　with　bickerings　and　doubts；　and　it　was　not　until　S。　E。　Wilkinson　was　elected　grand　master　in　1885　that　it　assumed　an　important　role　in　labor　organizations。　Wilkinson　was　one　of　those　big；　rough　and　ready　men；　with　a　natural　aptitude　for　leadership；　who　occasionally　emerge　from　the　mass。　He　preferred　railroading　to　schooling　and　spent　more　time　in　the　train　sheds　of　his　native　town　of　Monroeville；　Ohio；　than　he　did　at　school。　At　twelve　years　of　age　he　ran　away　to　join　the　Union　Army；　in　which　he　served　as　an　orderly　until　the　end　of　the　war。　He　then　followed　his　natural　bent；　became　a　switchman　and　later　a　brakeman；　was　a　charter　member　of　the　Brotherhood；　and；　when　its　outlook　was　least　encouraging；　became　its　Grand　Master。　At　once　under　his　leadership　the　organization　became　aggressive。

The　conditions　under　which　trainmen　worked　were　far　from　satisfactory。　At　that　time；　in　the　Eastern　field；　the　pay　of　a　brakeman　was　between　1。50　and　2　a　day　in　the　freight　service；　45　a　month　in　the　passenger　service；　and　50　a　month　for　yard　service。　In　the　Southern　territory；　the　wages　were　very　much　lower　and　in　the　Western　about　5　per　month　higher。　The　runs　in　the　different　sections　of　the　country　were　not　equalized；　there　was　no　limit　to　the　number　of　hours　called　a　day's　work；　overtime　and　preparatory　time　were　not　counted　in；　and　there　were　many　complaints　of　arbitrary　treatment　of　trainmen　by　their　superiors。　Wilkinson　set　to　work　to　remedy　the　wage　situation　first。　Almost　at　once　he　brought　about　the　adoption　of　the　principle　of　collective　bargaining　for　trainmen　and　yardmen。　By　1895；　when　he　relinquished　his　office；　the　majority　of　the　railways　in　the　United　States　and　Canada　had　working　agreements　with　their　train　and　yard　service　men。　Wages　had　been　raised；　twelve　hours　or　less　and　one　hundred　miles　or　less　became　recognized　as　a　daily　measure　of　service；　and　overtime　was　paid　extra。

The　panic　of　1893　hit　the　railway　service　very　hard。　There　followed　many　strikes　engineered　by　the　American　Railway　Union；　a　radical　organization　which　carried　its　ideas　of　violence　so　far　that　it　wrecked　not　only　itself　but　brought　the　newer　and　conservative　Brotherhoods　to　the　verge　of　ruin。　It　was　during　this　period　of　strain　that；　in　1895；　P。　H。　Morrissey　was　chosen　Grand　Master　of　the　Trainmen。　With　a　varied　training　in　railroading；　in　insurance；　and　in　labor　organization　work；　Morrissey　was　in　many　ways　the　antithesis　of　his　predecessors　who　had；　in　a　powerful　and　brusque　way；　prepared　the　ground　for　his　analytical　and　judicial　leadership。　He　was　unusually　well　informed　on　all　matters　pertaining　to　railroad　operations；　earnings；　and　conditions　of　employment；　and　on　general　economic　conditions。　This　knowledge；　together　with　his　forcefulness；　tact；　parliamentary　ability；　and　rare　good　judgment；　soon　made　him　the　spokesman　of　all　the　railway　Brotherhoods　in　their　joint　conferences　and　their　leader　before　the　public。　He　was　not　afraid　to　take　the　unpopular　side　of　a　cause；　cared　nothing　for　mere　temporary　advantages；　and　had　the　gift　of　inspiring　confidence。

When　Morrissey　assumed　the　leadership　of　the　Trainmen；　their　order　had　lost　10；000　members　in　two　years　and　was　about　200；000　in　debt。　The　panic　had　produced　unemployment　and　distrust；　and　the　violent　reprisals　of　the　American　Railway　Union　had　reaped　a　harvest　of　bitterness　and　disloyalty。　During　his　fifteen　years　of　service　until　he　retired　in　1909；　Morrissey　saw　his　order　rejuvenated　and　virtually　reconstructed；　the　work　of　the　men　standardized　in　the　greater　part　of　the　country；　slight　increases　of　pay　given　to　the　freight　and　passenger　men；　and　very　substantial　increases　granted　to　the　yard　men。　But　his　greatest　service　to　his　order　was　in　thoroughly　establishing　it　in　the　public　confidence。

He　was　succeeded　by　William　G。　Lee；　who　had　served　in　many　subordinate　offices　in　local　lodges　before　he　had　been　chosen　First　Vice…Grand　Master　in　1895。　For　fifteen　years　he　was　a　faithful　understudy　to　Morrissey　whose　policy　he　has　continued　in　a　characteristically　fearless　and　thoroughgoing　manner。　When　he　assumed　the　presidency　of　the　order；　he　obtained　a　ten…hour　day　in　the　Eastern　territory　for　all　train　and　yard　men；　together　with　a　slight　increase　in　pay　for　all　classes　fixed　on　the　ten…hour　basis。　The　ten…hour　day　was　now　adopted　in　Western　territory　where　it　had　not　already　been　put　into　effect。　The　Southern　territory；　however；　held　out　until　1912；　when　a　general　advance　on　all　Southern　railroads；　with　one　exception；