the armies of labor-第20部分

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ith　one　exception；　brought　the　freight　and　passenger　men　to　a　somewhat　higher　level　of　wages　than　existed　in　other　parts　of　the　country。　In　the　following　year　the　East　and　the　West　raised　their　wages　so　that　finally　a　fairly　level　rate　prevailed　throughout　the　United　States。　In　the　movement　for　the　eight…hour　day　which　culminated　in　the　passage　of　the　Adamson　Law　by　Congress；　Lee　and　his　order　took　a　prominent　part。　In　1919　the　Trainmen　had　253；000；000　insurance　in　force；　and　up　to　that　year　had　paid　out　42；500；000　in　claims。　Of　this　latter　amount　3；604；000　was　paid　out　in　1918；　one…half　of　which　was　attributed　to　the　influenza　epidemic。

Much　of　the　success　and　power　of　the　railroad　Brotherhoods　is　due　to　the　character　of　their　members　as　well　as　to　able　leadership。　The　editor　of　a　leading　newspaper　has　recently　written：　〃The　impelling　power　behind　every　one　of　these　organizations　is　the　membership。　I　say　this　without　detracting　from　the　executive　or　administrative　abilities　of　the　men　who　have　been　at　the　head　of　these　organizations；　for　their　influence　has　been　most　potent　in　carrying　out　the　will　of　their　several　organizations。　But　whatever　is　done　is　first　decided　upon　by　the　men　and　it　is　then　put　up　to　their　chief　executive　officers　for　their　direction。〃

With　a　membership　of　375；000　uniformly　clean　and　competent；　so　well　captained　and　so　well　fortified　financially　by　insurance；　benefit；　and　other　funds；　it　is　little　wonder　that　the　Brotherhoods　have　reached　a　permanent　place　in　the　railroad　industry。　Their　progressive　power　can　be　discerned　in　Federal　legislation　pertaining　to　arbitration　and　labor　conditions　in　interstate　carriers。　In　1888　an　act　was　passed　providing　that；　in　cases　of　railway　labor　disputes；　the　President　might　appoint　two　investigators　who；　with　the　United　States　Commission　of　Labor；　should　form　a　board　to　investigate　the　controversy　and　recommend　〃the　best　means　for　adjusting　it。〃　But　as　they　were　empowered　to　produce　only　findings　and　not　to　render　decisions；　the　law　remained　a　dead　letter；　without　having　a　single　case　brought　up　under　it。　It　was　superseded　in　1898　by　the　Erdman　Act；　which　provided　that　certain　Federal　officials　should　act　as　mediators　and　that；　in　case　they　failed；　a　Board　of　Arbitrators　was　to　be　appointed　whose　word　should　be　binding　for　a　certain　period　of　time　and　from　whose　decisions　appeal　could　be　taken　to　the　Federal　courts。　Of　the　hundreds　of　disputes　which　occurred　during　the　first　eight　years　of　the　existence　of　this　statute；　only　one　was　brought　under　the　mechanism　of　the　law。　Federal　arbitration　was　not　popular。　In　1905；　however；　a　rather　sudden　change　came　over　the　situation。　Over　sixty　cases　were　brought　under　the　Erdman　Act　in　about　eight　years。　In　1913　the　Newlands　Law　was　passed　providing　for　a　permanent　Board　of　Mediation　and　Conciliation；　by　which　over　sixty　controversies　have　been　adjusted。

The　increase　of　brotherhood　influence　which　such　legislation　represents　was　accompanied　by　a　consolidation　in　power。　At　first　the　Brotherhoods　operated　by　railway　systems　or　as　individual　orders。　Later　on　they　united　into　districts；　all　the　Brotherhoods　of　a　given　district　cooperating　in　their　demands。　Finally　the　cooperation　of　all　the　Brotherhoods　in　the　United　States　on　all　the　railway　systems　was　effected。　This　larger　organization　came　clearly　to　light　in　1912；　when　the　Brotherhoods　submitted　their　disputes　to　the　board　of　arbitration。　This　step　was　hailed　by　the　public　as　going　a　long　way　towards　the　settlement　of　labor　disputes　by　arbitral　boards。

The　latest　victory　of　the　Brotherhoods；　however；　has　shaken　public　confidence　and　has　ushered　in　a　new　era　of　brotherhood　influence　and　Federal　interference　in　railroad　matters。　In　1916；　the　four　Brotherhoods　threatened　to　strike。　The　mode　of　reckoning　paywhether　upon　an　eight…hour　or　a　longer　daywas　the　subject　of　contention。　The　Department　of　Labor；　through　the　Federal　Conciliation　Board；　tried　in　vain　to　bring　the　opponents　together。　Even　President　Wilson's　efforts　to　bring　about　an　agreement　proved　futile。　The　roads　agreed　to　arbitrate　all　the　points；　allowing　the　President　to　name　the　arbitrators；　but　the　Brotherhoods；　probably　realizing　their　temporary　strategic　advantage；　refused　point…blank　to　arbitrate。　When　the　President　tried　to　persuade　the　roads　to　yield　the　eight…hour　day；　they　replied　that　it　was　a　proper　subject　for　arbitration。

Instead　of　standing　firmly　on　the　principle　of　arbitration；　the　President　chose　to　go　before　Congress；　on　the　afternoon　of　the　29th　of　August；　and　ask；　first；　for　a　reorganization　of　the　Interstate　Commerce　Commission；　second；　for　legal　recognition　of　the　eight…hour　day　for　interstate　carriers；　third；　for　power　to　appoint　a　commission　to　observe　the　operation　of　the　eight…hour　day　for　a　stated　time；　fourth；　for　reopening　the　question　of　an　increase　in　freight　rates　to　meet　the　enlarged　cost　of　operation；　fifth；　for　a　law　declaring　railway　strikes　and　lockouts　unlawful　until　a　public　investigation　could　be　made；　sixth；　for　authorization　to　operate　the　roads　in　case　of　military　necessity。

The　strike　was　planned　to　fall　on　the　expectant　populace；　scurrying　home　from　their　vacations；　on　the　4th　of　September。　On　the　1st　of　September　an　eight…hour　bill；　providing　also　for　the　appointment　of　a　board　of　observation；　was　rushed　through　the　House；　on　the　following　day　it　was　hastened　through　the　staid　Senate；　and　on　the　third　it　received　the　President's　signature。*　The　other　recommendations　of　the　President　were　made　to　await　the　pleasure　of　Congress　and　the　unions。　To　the　suggestion　that　railway　strikes　be　made　unlawful　until　their　causes　are　disclosed　the　Brotherhoods　were　absolutely　opposed。

*　This　was　on　Sunday。　In　order　to　obviate　any　objection　as　to　the　legality　of　the　signature　the　President　signed　the　bill　again　on　the　following　Tuesday；　the　intervening　Monday　being　Labor　Day。


Many　readjustments　were　involved　in　launching　the　eight…hour　law；　and　in　March；　1917；　the　Brotherhoods　again　threatened　to　strike。　The　President　sent　a　committee；　including　the　Secretary　of　the　Interior　and　the　Secretary　of　Labor；　to　urge　the　parties　to　come　to　an　agreement。　On　the　19th　of　March；　the　Supreme　Court　upheld　the　validity　of　the　law；　and　the　trouble　subsided。　But　in　the　following　November；　after　the　declaration　of　war；　clouds　reappeared　on　the　horizon；　and　again　the　unions　refused　the　Government's　suggestion　of　arbitration。　Under　war　pressure；　however；　the　Brotherhoods　finally　consented　to　hold　their　grievance　in　abeyance。

The　haste　with　which　the　eight…hour　law　was　enacted；　and　the　omission　of　the　vital　balance　suggested　by　the　President　appeared　to　many　citizens　to　be　a　holdup　of　Congress；　and　the　nearness　of　the　presidential　election　suggested　that　a　political　motive　was　not　absent。　The　fact　that　in　the　ensuing　presidential　election；　Ohio；　the　home　of　the　Brotherhoods；　swung　from　the　Republican　to　the　Democratic　column；　did　not　dispel　this　suspicion　from　the　public　mind。　Throughout　this　maneuver　it　was　apparent　that　the　unions　were　very　confident；　but　whether　because　of　a　prearranged　pact；　or　because　of　a　full　treasury；　or　because　of　a　feeling　that　the　public　was　with　them；　or　because　of　the　opposite　belief　that　the　public　feared　them；　must　be　left　to　individual　conjecture。　None　the　less；　the　public　realized　that　the　principle　of　arbitration　had　given　way　to　the　principle　of　coercion。

Soon　after　the　United　States　had　entered　the　Great　War；　the　Government；　under　authority　of　an　act　of　Congress；　took　over　the　management　of　all　the　interstate　railroads；　and　the　nation　was　launched　upon　a　vast　experiment　destined　to　test　the　capacities　of　all　the　parties　concerned。　The　dispute　over　wages　that　had　been　temporarily　quieted　by　the　Adamson　Law　broke　out　afresh　until　settled　by　the　famous　Order　No。　27；　issued　by　William　G。　McAdoo；　the　Director　General　of　Railroads；　and　providing　a　substantial　readjustment　of　wages　and　hours。　In　the　spring　of　1919　another　large　wage　increase　was　granted　to　the　men　by　Director　General　Hines；　who　succeeded　McAdoo。　Meanwhile　the　Brotherhoods；　through　their　counsel；　laid　before　the　congressional　committee　a　plan　for　the　government　ownership　and　joint　operation　of　the　roads；　known　as　the　Plumb　plan；　and　the　American　people　are　now　face　to　face　with　an　issue　which　will　bring　to　a　head　the　paramount　question　of　the　relation　of　employees　on　government　works　to　the　Government　and　to　the　general　public。



CHAPTER　VIII。　ISSUES　AND　WARFARE

There　has　been　an　enormous　expansion　in　the　demands　of　the　unions　since　the　early　days　of　the　Philadelphia　cordwainers；　yet　these　demands　involve　the　same　fundamental　issues　regarding　hours；　wages；　and　the　closed　shop。　Most　unions；　when　all　persiflage　is　set　aside；　are　primarily　organized　for　businessthe　business　of　looking　after　their　own　interests。　Their　treasury　is　a　war　chest　rather　than　an　insurance　fund。　As　a　benevolent　organization；　the　American　union　is　far　behind　the　British　union　with　its　highly　developed　Friendly　Societies。

The　establishment　of　a　standard　rate　of　wages　is　perhaps；　as　the　United　States　Industrial　Commission　reported　in　1901；　〃the　primary　object　of　trade　union　policy。〃　The　most　promising　method　of　adjusting　the　wage　contract　is　by　the　collective　trade　agreement。　The　mechanism　of　the　union　has　made　possible　collective　bargaining；　and　in　numerous　trades　wages　and　other　conditions　are　now　adjusted　by　this　method。　One　of　the　earliest　of　these　agreements　was　effected　by　the　Iron　Molders'　Union　in　1891　and　has　been　annually　renewed。　The　coal　operatives；　too；　for　a　number　of　years　have　signed　a　wage　agreement　with　their　miners；　and　the　many　local　difficulties　and　differences　have　been　ingeniously　and　successfully　met。　The　great　railroads　have；　likewise；　for　many　years　made　periodical　contracts　with　the　railway　Brotherhoods。　The　glove…makers；　cigar…makers；　and；　in　many　localities；　workers　in　the　building　trades　and　on　street…railway　systems　have　the　advantage　of　similar　collective　agreements。　In　1900　the　American　Newspaper　Publishers　Association　and　the　International　Typographical　Union；　after　many　years　of　stubborn　fighting　merged　their　numerous　differences　in　a　trade　contract　to　be　in　effect　for　one　year。