the armies of labor-第21部分
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tubborn fighting merged their numerous differences in a trade contract to be in effect for one year。 This experiment proved so successful that the agreement has since then been renewed for five year periods。 In 1915 a bitter strike of the garment makers in New York City was ended by a 〃protocol。〃 The principle of collective agreement has become so prevalent that the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor believes that it 〃is being accepted with increasing favor by both employers and employees；〃 and John Mitchell； speaking from wide experience and an intimate knowledge of conditions； says that 〃the hope of future peace in the industrial world lies in the trade agreement。〃 These agreements are growing in complexity； and today they embrace not only questions of wages and hours but also methods for adjusting all the differences which may arise between the parties to the bargain。
The very success of collective bargaining hinges upon the solidarity and integrity of the union which makes the bargain。 A union capable of enforcing an agreement is a necessary antecedent condition to such a contract。 With this fact in mind； one can believe that John Mitchell was not unduly sanguine in stating that 〃the tendency is toward the growth of compulsory membership 。。。and the time will doubtless come when this compulsion will be as general and will be considered as little of a grievance as the compulsory attendance of children at school。〃 There are certain industries so well centralized； however； that their coercive power is greater than that of the labor union； and these have maintained a consistent hostility to the closed shop。 The question of the closed shop is； indeed； the most stubborn issue confronting the union。 The principle involves the employment of only union men in a shop； it means a monopoly of jobs by members of the union。 The issue is as old as the unions themselves and as perplexing as human nature。 As early as 1806 it was contended for by the Philadelphia cordwainers and by 1860 it had become an established union policy。 While wages and hours are now； in the greater industrial fields； the subject of a collective contract； this question of union monopoly is still open； though there has been some progress towards an adjustment。 Wherever the trade agreement provides for a closed shop； the union； through its proper committees and officers； assumes at least part of the responsibility of the discipline。 The agreement also includes methods for arbitrating differences。 The acid test of the union is its capacity to live up to this trade agreement。
For the purpose of forcing its policies upon its employers and society the unions have resorted to the strike and picketing； the boycott； and the union label。 When violence occurs； it usually is the concomitant of a strike； but violence unaccompanied by a strike is sometimes used as a union weapon。
The strike is the oldest and most spectacular weapon in the hands of labor。 For many years it was thought a necessary concomitant of machine industry。 The strike； however； antedates machinery and was a practical method of protest long before there were unions。 Men in a shop simply agreed not to work further and walked out。 The earliest strike in the United States； as disclosed by the United States Department of Labor occurred in 1741 among the journeymen bakers in New York City。 In 1792 the cordwainers of Philadelphia struck。 By 1834 strikes were so prevalent that the New York Daily Advertiser declared them to be 〃all the fashion。〃 These demonstrations were all small affairs compared with the strikes that disorganized industry after the Civil War or those that swept the country in successive waves in the late seventies； the eighties； and the nineties。 The United States Bureau of Labor has tabulated the strike statistics for the twenty…five year period from 1881 to 1905。 This list discloses the fact that 38；303 strikes and lockouts occurred； involving 199；954 establishments and 7；444；279 employees。 About 2；000；000 other employees were thrown out of work as an indirect result。 In 1894； the year of the great Pullman strike； 610；425 men were out of work at one time； and 659；792 in 1902。 How much time and money these ten million wage…earners lost； and their employers lost； and society lost； can never be computed； nor how much nervous energy was wasted； good will thrown to the winds； and mutual suspicion created。
The increase of union influence is apparent； for recognition of the union has become more frequently a cause for strikes。* Moreover； while the unions were responsible for about 47 per cent of the strikes in 1881； they had originated； directly or indirectly； 75 per cent in 1905。 More significant； indeed； is the fact that striking is a growing habit。 In 1903； for instance； there were 3494 strikes； an average of about ten a day。
* The cause of the strikes tabulated by the Bureau of Labor is shown in the following table of percentages：
1881 1891 1901 1905 For increase of wages： 61 27 29 32 Against reduction of wages： 10 11 4 5 For reduction in hours： 3 5 7 5 Recognition of Union： 6 14 28 31
Preparedness is the watchword of the Unions in this warfare。 They have generals and captains； a war chest and relief committees； as well as publicity agents and sympathy scouts whose duty it is to enlist the interest of the public。 Usually the leaders of the unions are conservative and deprecate violence。 But a strike by its very nature offers an opportunity to the lawless。 The destruction of property and the coercion of workmen have been so prevalent in the past that； in the public mind； violence has become universally associated with strikes。 Judge Jenkins； of the United States Circuit Court； declared； in a leading case； that 〃a strike without violence would equal the representation of Hamlet with the part of Hamlet omitted。〃 Justice Brewer of the United States Supreme Court said that 〃the common rule as to strikes〃 is not only for the workers to quit but to 〃forcibly prevent others from taking their place。〃 Historic examples involving violence of this sort are the great railway strikes of 1877； when Pittsburgh； Reading； Cincinnati； Chicago； and Buffalo were mob…ridden； the strike of the steel…workers at Homestead； Pennsylvania； in 1892； the Pullman strike of 1894； when President Cleveland sent Federal troops to Chicago； the great anthracite strike of 1902； which the Federal Commission characterized as 〃stained with a record of riot and bloodshed〃； the civil war in the Colorado and Idaho mining regions； where the Western Federation of Miners battled with the militia and Federal troops； the dynamite outrages； perpetrated by the structural iron workers； stretching across the entire country； and reaching a dastardly climax in the dynamiting of the Los Angeles Times building on October 1； 1910； in which some twenty men were killed。 The recoil from this outrage was the severest blow which organized labor has received in America。 John J。 McNamara； Secretary of the Structural Iron Workers' Association； and his brother James were indicted for murder。 After the trial was staged and the eyes of the nation were upon it； the public was shocked and the hopes of labor unionists were shattered by the confessions of the principals。 In March； 1912； a Federal Grand Jury at Indianapolis returned fifty…four indictments against officers and members of the same union for participation in dynamite outrages that had occurred during the six years in many parts of the country； with a toll of over one hundred lives and the destruction of property valued at many millions of dollars。 Among those indicted was the president of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers。 Most of the defendants were sentenced to various terms in the penitentiary。
The records of this industrial warfare are replete with lesser battles where thuggery joined hands with desperation in the struggle for wages。 Evidence is not wanting that local leaders have frequently incited their men to commit acts of violence in order to impress the public with their earnestness。 It is not an inviting picture； this matching of the sullen violence of the mob against the sullen vigilance of the corporation。 Yet such methods have not always been used； for the union has done much to systematize this guerrilla warfare。 It has matched the ingenuity and the resolution of the employer； backed by his detectives and professional strike…breakers； it has perfected its organization so that the blow of a whistle or the mere uplifting of a hand can silence a great mill。 Some of the notable strikes have been managed with rare skill and diplomacy。 Some careful observers； indeed； are inclined to the opinion that the amount of violence that takes place in the average strike has been grossly exaggerated。 They maintain that； considering the great number of strikes； the earnestness with which they are fought； the opportunity they offer to the lawless； and the vast range of territory they cover； the amount of damage to property and person is unusually small and that the public； through sensational newspaper reports of one or two acts of violence； is led to an exaggerated opinion of its prevalence。
It must be admitted； however； that the wisdom and conservatism of the national labor leaders is neutralized by their lack of authority in their particular organization。 A large price is paid for the autonomy that permits the local unions to declare strikes without the sanction of the general officers。 There are only a few unions； perhaps half a dozen； in which a local can be expelled for striking contrary to the wish of the national officers。 In the United Mine Workers' Union； for example； the local must secure the consent of the district officers and national president； or； if these disagree； of the executive board； before it can declare a strike。 The tendency to strike on the spur of the moment is much more marked among the newer unions than among the older ones； which have perfected their strike machinery through much experience and have learned the cost of hasty and unjustified action。
A less conspicuous but none the less effective weapon in the hands of labor is the boycott；*
