the armies of labor-第23部分

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The　application　of　the　label　is　being　rapidly　extended。　Building　materials　are　now　in　many　large　cities　under　label　domination。　In　Chicago　the　bricklayers　have　for　over　fifteen　years　been　able　to　force　the　builders　to　use　only　union…label　brick；　and　the　carpenters　have　forced　the　contractors　to　use　only　material　from　union　mills。　There　is　practically　no　limit　to　this　form　of　mandatory　boycott。　The　barbers；　retail　clerks；　hotel　employees；　and　butcher　workmen　hang　union　cards　in　their　places　of　employment　or　wear　badges　as　insignia　of　union　loyalty。　As　these　labels　do　not　come　under　the　protection　of　the　United　States　trademark　laws；　the　unions　have　not　infrequently　been　forced　to　bring　suits　against　counterfeiters。

Finally；　in　their　efforts　to　fortify　themselves　against　undue　increase　in　the　rate　of　production　or　〃speeding　up；〃　against　the　inrush　of　new　machinery；　and　against　the　debilitating　alternation　of　rush　work　and　no　work；　the　unions　have　attempted　to　restrict　the　output。　The　United　States　Industrial　Commission　reported　in　1901　that　〃there　has　always　been　a　strong　tendency　among　labor　organizations　to　discourage　exertion　beyond　a　certain　limit。　The　tendency　does　not　express　itself　in　formal　rules。　On　the　contrary；　it　appears　chiefly　in　the　silent；　or　at　least　informal　pressure　of　working　class　opinion。〃　Some　unions　have　rules；　others　a　distinct　understanding；　on　the　subject　of　a　normal　day's　work；　and　some　discourage　piecework。　But　it　is　difficult　to　determine　how　far　this　policy　has　been　carried　in　application。　Carroll　D。　Wright；　in　a　special　report　as　United　States　Commissioner　of　Labor　in　1904；　said　that　〃unions　in　some　cases　fix　a　limit　to　the　amount　of　work　a　workman　may　perform　a　day。　Usually　it　is　a　secret　understanding；　but　sometimes；　when　the　union　is　strong；　no　concealment　is　made。〃　His　report　mentioned　several　trades；　including　the　building　trades；　in　which　this　curtailment　is　prevalent。

The　course　of　this　industrial　warfare　between　the　unions　and　the　employers　has　been　replete　with　sordid　details　of　selfishness；　corruption；　hatred；　suspicion；　and　malice。　In　every　community　the　strike　or　the　boycott　has　been　an　ominous　visitant；　leaving　in　its　trail　a　social　bitterness　which　even　time　finds　it　difficult　to　efface。　In　the　great　cities　and　the　factory　towns；　the　constant　repetition　of　labor　struggles　has　created　centers　of　perennial　discontent　which　are　sources　of　never…ending　reprisals。　In　spite　of　individual　injustice；　however；　one　can　discern　in　the　larger　movements　a　current　setting　towards　a　collective　justice　and　a　communal　ideal　which　society　in　self…defense　is　imposing　upon　the　combatants。



CHAPTER　IX。　THE　NEW　TERRORISM：　THE　I。W。W。

It　was　not　to　be　expected　that　the　field　of　organized　labor　would　be　left　undisputed　to　the　moderation　of　the　trade　union　after　its　triumph　over　the　extreme　methods　of　the　Knights　of　Labor。　The　public；　however；　did　not　anticipate　the　revolutionary　ideal　which　again　sought　to　inflame　industrial　unionism。　After　the　decadence　of　the　older　type　of　the　industrial　union　several　conditions　manifested　themselves　which　now；　in　retrospect；　appear　to　have　encouraged　the　violent　militants　who　call　themselves　the　Industrial　Workers　of　the　World。

First　of　all；　there　took　place　in　Europe　the　rise　of　syndicalism　with　its　adoption　of　sympathetic　strikes　as　one　of　its　methods。　Syndicalism　flourished　especially　in　France；　where　from　its　inception　the　alert　French　mind　had　shaped　for　it　a　philosophy　of　violence；　whose　subtlest　exponent　was　Georges　Sorel。　〃The　Socialist　Future　of　Trade　Unions；〃　which　he　published　in　1897；　was　an　early　exposition　of　his　views；　but　his　〃Reflections　upon　Violence〃　in　1908　is　the　best　known　of　his　contributions　to　this　newer　doctrine。　With　true　Gallic　fervor；　the　French　workingman　had　sought　to　translate　his　philosophy　into　action；　and　in　1906　undertook；　with　the　aid　of　a　revolutionary　organization　known　as　the　〃Confederation　General　du　Travail；〃　a　series　of　strikes　which　culminated　in　the　railroad　and　post　office　strike　of　1909。　All　these　uprisingsfor　they　were　in　reality　more　than　strikeswere　characterized　by　extreme　language；　by　violent　action；　and　by　impressive　public　demonstrations。　In　Italy；　Spain；　Norway；　and　Belgium；　the　syndicalists　were　also　active。　Their　partiality　to　violent　methods　attracted　general　attention　in　Europe　and　appealed　to　that　small　group　of　American　labor　leaders　whose　experience　in　the　Western　Federation　of　Miners　had　taught　them　the　value　of　dynamite　as　a　press　agent。

In　the　meantime　material　was　being　gathered　for　a　new　outbreak　in　the　United　States。　The　casual　laborers　had　greatly　increased　in　numbers；　especially　in　the　West。　These　migratory　workingmenthe　〃hobo　miners；〃　the　〃hobo　lumberjacks；〃　the　〃blanket　stiffs；〃　of　colloquial　speechwander　about　the　country　in　search　of　work。　They　rarely　have　ties　of　family　and　seldom　ties　of　locality。　About　one…half　of　these　wanderers　are　American　born。　They　are　to　be　described　with　precision　as　〃floaters。〃　Their　range　of　operations　includes　the　wheat　regions　west　of　the　Mississippi；　the　iron　mines　of　Michigan　and　Minnesota；　the　mines　and　forests　of　Idaho；　Montana；　Colorado；　Washington；　and　Oregon；　and　the　fields　of　California　and　Arizona。　They　prefer　to　winter　in　the　cities；　but；　as　their　only　refuge　is　the　bunk　lodging　house；　they　increase　the　social　problem　in　New　York；　Chicago；　San　Francisco；　and　other　centers　of　the　unemployed。　Many　of　these　migrants　never　were　skilled　workers；　but　a　considerable　portion　of　them　have　been　forced　down　into　the　ranks　of　the　unskilled　by　the　inevitable　tragedies　of　prolonged　unemployment。　Such　men　lend　a　willing　ear　to　the　labor　agitator。　The　exact　number　in　this　wandering　class　is　not　known。　The　railroad　companies　have　estimated　that　at　a　given　time　there　have　been　500；000　hobos　trying　to　beat　their　way　from　place　to　place。　Unquestionably　a　large　percentage　of　the　23；964　trespassers　killed　and　of　the　25；236　injured　on　railway　rights　of　way　from　1901　to　1904　belonged　to　this　class。

It　is　not　alone　these　drifters；　however；　who　because　of　their　irresponsibility　and　their　hostility　toward　society　became　easy　victims　to　the　industrial　organizer。　The　great　mass　of　unskilled　workers　in　the　factory　towns　proved　quite　as　tempting　to　the　propagandist。　Among　laborers　of　this　class；　wages　are　the　lowest　and　living　conditions　the　most　uninviting。　Moreover；　this　group　forms　the　industrial　reservoir　which　receives　the　settlings　of　the　most　recent　European　and　Asiatic　immigration。　These　people　have　a　standard　of　living　and　conceptions　of　political　and　individual　freedom　which　are　at　variance　with　American　traditions。　Though　their　employment　is　steadier　than　that　of　the　migratory　laborer；　and　though　they　often　have　ties　of　family　and　other　stabilizing　responsibilities；　their　lives　are　subject　to　periods　of　unemployment；　and　these　fluctuations　serve　to　feed　their　innate　restlessness。　They　are；　in　quite　the　literal　sense　of　the　word；　American　proletarians。　They　are　more　volatile　than　any　European　proletarian；　for　they　have　learned　the　lesson　of　migration；　and　they　retain　the　socialistic　and　anarchistic　philosophy　of　their　European　fellow…workers。

There　were　several　attempts　to　organize　casual　labor　after　the　decline　of　the　Knights　of　Labor。　But　it　is　difficult　to　arouse　any　sustained　interest　in　industrial　organizations　among　workingmen　of　this　class。　They　lack　the　motive　of　members　of　a　trade　union；　and　the　migratory　character　of　such　workers　deprives　their　organization　of　stability。　One　industrial　organization；　however；　has　been　of　the　greatest　encouragement　to　the　I。W。W。　The　Western　Federation　of　Miners；　which　was　organized　at　Butte；　Montana；　on　May　15；　1893；　has　enjoyed　a　more　turbulent　history　than　any　other　American　labor　union。　It　was　conceived　in　that　spirit　of　rough　resistance　which　local　unions　of　miners；　for　some　years　before　the　amalgamation　of　the　unions；　had　opposed　to　the　ruthless　and　firm　determination　of　the　mine　owners。　In　1897；　the　president　of　the　miners；　after　quoting　the　words　of　the　Constitution　of　the　United　States　giving　citizens　the　right　to　bear　arms；　said：　〃This　you　should　comply　with　immediately。　Every　union　should　have　a　rifle　club。　I　strongly　advise　you　to　provide　every　member　with　the　latest　improved　rifle　which　can　be　obtained　from　the　factory　at　a　nominal　price。　I　entreat　you　to　take　action　on　this　important　question；　so　that　in　two　years　we　can　hear　the　inspiring　music　of　the　martial　tread　of　25；000　armed　men　in　the　ranks　of　labor。〃

This　militant　vision　was　fortunately　never　quite　fulfilled。　But　armed　strikers　there　were；　by　the　thousands；　and　the　gruesome　details　of　their　fight　with　mine　owners　in　Colorado　are　set　forth　in　a　special　report　of　the　United　States　Commissioner　of　Labor　in　1905。　The　use　of　dynamite　became　early　associated　with　this　warfare　in　Colorado。　In　1903　a　fatal　explosion　occurred　in　the　Vindicator　mine；　and　Telluride；　the　county　seat；　was　proclaimed　to　be　in　a　state　of　insurrection　and　rebellion。　In　1904　a　cage　lifting　miners　from　the　shaft　in　the　Independence　mine　at　Victor　was　dropped　and　fifteen　men　were　killed。　There　were　many　minor　outrages；　isolated　murders；　〃white　cap〃　raids；　infernal　machines；　deportations；　black　lists；　and　so　on。　In　Montana　and　Idaho　similar　scenes　were　enacted　and　reached　a　climax　in　the　murder　of　Governor　Steunenberg　of　Idaho。　Yet　the　union　officers　indicted　for　this　murder　were　released　by　the　trial　jury。

Such　was　the　preparatory　school　of　the　new　unionism；　which　had　its　inception　in　several　informal　conferences　held　in　Chicago。　The　first；　attended　by　only　six　radical　leaders；　met　in　the　autumn　of　1904。　The　second；　held　in　January；　1905；　issued　a　manifesto　attacking　the　trade　unions；　calling　for　a　〃new　departure〃　in　the　labor　movement；　and　inviting　those　who　desired　to　join　in　organizing　such　a　movement　to　〃meet　in　convention　in　Chicago　the　27th　day　of　June；　1905。〃　About　two　hundred　persons　responded　to　this　appeal　and　organized　the　Industrial　Workers　of　the　World；　almost　unnoticed　by　the　press　of　the　day　and　scorned　by　the　American　Federation　of　Labor；　whose　official　organ　had　called　those　in　attendance　at　the　second　conference　〃engaged　in　the　delectable　work　of　trying　to　divert；　p