the armies of labor-第3部分

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ncis　Place；　a　tailor　who　had　taken　active　part　in　various　strikes。　He　was　secretary　of　the　London　Corresponding　Society；　a　powerful　labor　union；　which　in　1795　had　twenty　branches　in　London。　Most　of　the　officers　of　this　organization　were　at　one　time　or　another　arrested；　and　some　were　kept　in　prison　three　years　without　a　trial。　Place；　schooled　in　such　experience；　became　a　radical　politician　of　great　influence；　a　friend　of　Bentham；　Owen；　and　the　elder　Mill。　The　second　type　of　new　reformer　was　represented　by　Joseph　Hume；　a　physician　who　had　accumulated　wealth　in　the　India　Service；　who　had　returned　home　to　enter　public　life；　and　who　was　converted　from　Toryism　to　Radicalism　by　a　careful　study　of　financial；　political；　and　industrial　problems。　A　great　number　of　reform　laws　can　be　traced　directly　to　his　incredible　activity　during　his　thirty　years　in　Parliament。　The　third　leader　was　John　R。　McCulloch；　an　orthodox　economist；　a　disciple　of　Adam　Smith；　for　some　years　editor　of　The　Scotsman；　which　was　then　a　violently　radical　journal　cooperating　with　the　newly　established　Edinburgh　Review　in　advocating　sociological　and　political　reforms。

Thus　Great　Britain；　the　mother　country　from　which　Americans　have　inherited　so　many　institutions；　laws；　and　traditions；　passed　in　turn　through　the　periods　of　extreme　paternalism；　glorified　competition；　and　governmental　antagonism　to　labor　combinations；　into　what　may　be　called　the　age　of　conciliation。　And　today　the　Labour　Party　in　the　House　of　Commons　has　shown　itself　strong　enough　to　impose　its　programme　upon　the　Liberals　and；　through　this　radical　coalition；　has　achieved　a　power　for　the　working　man　greater　than　even　Francis　Place　or　Thomas　Carlyle　ever　hoped　for。



CHAPTER　II。　FORMATIVE　YEARS

America　did　not　become　a　cisatlantic　Britain；　as　some　of　the　colonial　adventurers　had　hoped。　A　wider　destiny　awaited　her。　Here　were　economic　conditions　which　upset　all　notions　of　the　fixity　of　class　distinctions。　Here　was　a　continent　of　free　land；　luring　the　disaffected　or　disappointed　artisan　and　enabling　him　to　achieve　economic　independence。　Hither　streamed　ceaselessly　hordes　of　immigrants　from　Europe；　constantly　shifting　the　social　equilibrium。　Here　the　demand　for　labor　was　constant；　except　during　the　rare　intervals　of　financial　stagnation；　and　here　the　door　of　opportunity　swung　wide　to　the　energetic　and　able　artisan。　The　records　of　American　industry　are　replete　with　names　of　prominent　leaders　who　began　at　the　apprentice's　bench。

The　old　class　distinctions　brought　from　the　home　country；　however；　had　survived　for　many　years　in　the　primeval　forests　of　Virginia　and　Maryland　and　even　among　the　hills　of　New　England。　Indeed；　until　the　Revolution　and　for　some　time　thereafter；　a　man's　clothes　were　the　badge　of　his　calling。　The　gentleman　wore　powdered　queue　and　ruffled　shirt；　the　workman；　coarse　buckskin　breeches；　ponderous　shoes　with　brass　buckles；　and　usually　a　leather　apron；　well　greased　to　keep　it　pliable。　Just　before　the　Revolution　the　lot　of　the　common　laborer　was　not　an　enviable　one。　His　house　was　rude　and　barren　of　comforts；　his　fare　was　coarse　and　without　variety。　His　wage　was　two　shillings　a　day；　and　prison　usually　an　indescribably　filthy　hole　awaited　him　the　moment　he　ran　into　debt。　The　artisan　fared　somewhat　better。　He　had　spent；　as　a　rule；　seven　years　learning　his　trade；　and　his　skill　and　energy　demanded　and　generally　received　a　reasonable　return。　The　account　books　that　have　come　down　to　us　from　colonial　days　show　that　his　handiwork　earned　him　a　fair　living。　This；　however；　was　before　machinery　had　made　inroads　upon　the　product　of　cabinetmaker；　tailor；　shoemaker；　locksmith；　and　silversmith；　and　when　the　main　street　of　every　village　was　picturesque　with　the　signs　of　the　crafts　that　maintained　the　decent　independence　of　the　community。

Such　labor　organizations　as　existed　before　the　Revolution　were　limited　to　the　skilled　trades。　In　1648　the　coopers　and　the　shoemakers　of　Boston　were　granted　permission　to　organize　guilds；　which　embraced　both　master　and　journeyman；　and　there　were　a　few　similar　organizations　in　New　York；　Philadelphia；　and　Baltimore。　But　these　were　not　unions　like　those　of　today。　〃There　are；〃　says　Richard　T。　Ely；　〃no　traces　of　anything　like　a　modern　trades'　union　in　the　colonial　period　of　American　history；　and　it　is　evident　on　reflection　that　there　was　little　need；　if　any；　of　organization　on　the　part　of　labor；　at　that　time。〃*

*　〃The　Labor　Movement　in　America；〃　by　Richard　T。　Ely　（1905）；　p。　86。


A　new　epoch　for　labor　came　in　with　the　Revolution。　Within　a　decade　wages　rose　fifty　per　cent；　and　John　Jay　in　1784　writes　of　the　〃wages　of　mechanics　and　laborers〃　as　〃very　extravagant。〃　Though　the　industries　were　small　and　depended　on　a　local　market　within　a　circumscribed　area　of　communication；　they　grew　rapidly。　The　period　following　the　Revolution　is　marked　by　considerable　industrial　restiveness　and　by　the　formation　of　many　labor　organizations；　which　were；　however；　benevolent　or　friendly　societies　rather　than　unions　and　were　often　incorporated　by　an　act　of　the　legislature。　In　New　York；　between　1800　and　1810；　twenty…four　such　societies　were　incorporated。　Only　in　the　larger　cities　were　they　composed　of　artisans　of　one　trade；　such　as　the　New　York　Masons　Society　（1807）　or　the　New　York　Society　of　Journeymen　Shipwrights　（1807）。　Elsewhere　they　included　artisans　of　many　trades；　such　as　the　Albany　Mechanical　Society　（1801）。　In　Philadelphia　the　cordwainers；　printers；　and　hatters　had　societies。　In　Baltimore　the　tailors　were　the　first　to　organize；　and　they　conducted　in　1795　one　of　the　first　strikes　in　America。　Ten　years　later　they　struck　again；　and　succeeded　in　raising　their　pay　from　seven　shillings　sixpence　the　job　to　eight　shillings　ninepence　and　〃extras。〃　At　the　same　time　the　pay　of　unskilled　labor　was　rising　rapidly；　for　workers　were　scarce　owing　to　the　call　of　the　merchant　marine　in　those　years　of　the　rising　splendor　of　the　American　sailing　ship；　and　the　lure　of　western　lands。　The　wages　of　common　laborers　rose　to　a　dollar　and　more　a　day。

There　occurred　in　1805　an　important　strike　of　the　Philadelphia　cordwainers。　Theirs　was　one　of　the　oldest　labor　organizations　in　the　country；　and　it　had　conducted　several　successful　strikes。　This　particular　occasion；　however；　is　significant；　because　the　strikers　were　tried　for　conspiracy　in　the　mayor's　court；　with　the　result　that　they　were　found　guilty　and　fined　eight　dollars　each；　with　costs。　As　the　court　permitted　both　sides　to　tell　their　story　in　detail；　a　full　report　of　the　proceedings　survives　to　give　us；　as　it　were；　a　photograph　of　the　labor　conditions　of　that　time。　The　trial　kindled　a　great　deal　of　local　animosity。　A　newspaper　called　the　Aurora　contained　inflammatory　accounts　of　the　proceedings；　and　a　pamphlet　giving　the　records　of　the　court　was　widely　circulated。　This　pamphlet　bore　the　significant　legend；　〃It　is　better　that　the　law　be　known　and　certain；　than　that　it　be　right；〃　and　was　dedicated　to　the　Governor　and　General　Assembly　〃with　the　hope　of　attracting　their　particular　attention；　at　the　next　meeting　of　the　legislature。〃

Another　early　instance　of　a　strike　occurred　in　New　York　City　in　1809；　when　the　cordwainers　struck　for　higher　wages　and　were　hauled　before　the　mayor's　court　on　the　charge　of　conspiracy。　The　trial　was　postponed　by　Mayor　DeWitt　Clinton　until　after　the　pending　municipal　elections　to　avoid　the　risk　of　offending　either　side。　When　at　length　the　strikers　were　brought　to　trial；　the　court…house　was　crowded　with　spectators；　showing　how　keen　was　the　public　interest　in　the　case。　The　jury's　verdict　of　〃guilty；〃　and　the　imposition　of　a　fine　of　one　dollar　each　and　costs　upon　the　defendants　served　but　as　a　stimulus　to　the　friends　of　the　strikers　to　gather　in　a　great　mass　meeting　and　protest　against　the　verdict　and　the　law　that　made　it　possible。

In　1821　the　New　York　Typographical　Society；　which　had　been　organized　four　years　earlier　by　Peter　Force；　a　labor　leader　of　unusual　energy；　set　a　precedent　for　the　vigorous　and　fearless　career　of　its　modern　successor　by　calling　a　strike　in　the　printing　office　of　Thurlow　Weed；　the　powerful　politician；　himself　a　member　of　the　society；　because　he　employed　a　〃rat；〃　as　a　nonunion　worker　was　called。　It　should　be　noted；　however；　that　the　organizations　of　this　early　period　were　of　a　loose　structure　and　scarcely　comparable　to　the　labor　unions　of　today。


Sidney　Smith；　the　brilliant　contributor　to　the　〃Edinburgh　Review；〃　propounded　in　1820　certain　questions　which　sum　up　the　general　conditions　of　American　industry　and　art　after　nearly　a　half　century　of　independence：　〃In　the　four　quarters　of　the　globe；〃　he　asked；　〃who　reads　an　American　book？　or　goes　to　an　American　play？　or　looks　at　an　American　picture　or　statue？　What　does　the　world　yet　owe　to　American　physicians　or　surgeons？　What　new　substances　have　their　chemists　discovered？　or　what　old　ones　have　they　analyzed？　What　new　constellations　have　been　discovered　by　the　telescopes　of　Americans？　What　have　they　done　in　mathematics？　Who　drinks　out　of　American　glasses？　or　eats　from　American　plates？　or　wears　American　coats　or　gowns？　or　sleeps　in　American　blankets？〃

These　questions；　which　were　quite　pertinent；　though　conceived　in　an　impertinent　spirit；　were　being　answered　in　America　even　while　the　witty　Englishman　was　framing　them。　The　water　power　of　New　England　was　being　harnessed　to　cotton　mills；　woolen　mills；　and　tanneries。　Massachusetts　in　1820　reported　one　hundred　and　sixty…one　factories。　New　York　had　begun　that　marvelous　growth　which　made　the　city；　in　the　course　of　a　few　decades；　the　financial　capital　of　a　hemisphere。　So　rapidly　were　people　flocking　to　New　York；　that　houses　had　tenants　long　before　they　had　windows　and　doors；　and　streets　were　lined　with　buildings　before　they　had　sewers；　sidewalks；　or　pavements。　New　Jersey　had　well　under　way　those　manufactories　of　glassware；　porcelains；　carpets；　and　textiles　which　have　since　brought　her　great　prosperity。　Philadelphia　was　the　country's　greatest　weaving　center；　boasting　four　thousand　craftsmen　engaged　in　that　industry。　Even　on　the　frontier；　Pittsburgh　and　Cincinnati　were　emerging　from　〃settlements〃　into　manufacturing　towns　of　importance。　McMaster　concludes　his　graphic　summary　of　these　years　as　follows：　〃In　1820　it　was　estimated　that　200；0