the armies of labor-第4部分

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Master　concludes　his　graphic　summary　of　these　years　as　follows：　〃In　1820　it　was　estimated　that　200；000　persons　and　a　capital　of　75；000；000　were　employed　in　manufacturing。　In　1825　the　capital　used　had　been　expanded　to　160；000；000　and　the　number　of　workers　to　2；000；000。〃*

*　History　of　the　People　of　the　United　States　（1901）；　vol。　V；　p。　230。


The　Industrial　Revolution　had　set　in。　These　new　millions　who　hastened　to　answer　the　call　of　industry　in　the　new　land　were　largely　composed　of　the　poor　of　other　lands。　Thousands　of　them　were　paupers　when　they　landed　in　America；　their　passage　having　been　paid　by　those　at　home　who　wanted　to　get　rid　of　them。　Vast　numbers　settled　down　in　the　cities；　in　spite　of　the　lure　of　the　land。　It　was　at　this　period　that　universal　manhood　suffrage　was　written　into　the　constitutions　of　the　older　States；　and　a　new　electorate　assumed　the　reins　of　power。　Now　the　first　labor　representatives　were　sent　to　the　legislatures　and　to　Congress；　and　the　older　parties　began　eagerly　bidding　for　the　votes　of　the　humble。　The　decision　of　great　questions　fell　to　this　new　electorate。　With　the　rise　of　industry　came　the　demand　for　a　protective　tariff　and　for　better　transportation。　State　governments　vied　with　each　other；　in　thoughtless　haste；　in　lending　their　credit　to　new　turnpike　and　canal　construction。　And　above　all　political　issues　loomed　the　Bank；　the　monopoly　that　became　the　laborer's　bugaboo　and　Andrew　Jackson's　opportunity　to　rally　to　his　side　the　newly　enfranchised　mechanics。

So　the　old　days　of　semi…colonial　composure　were　succeeded　by　the　thrilling　experiences　that　a　new　industrial　prosperity　thrusts　upon　a　really　democratic　electorate。　Little　wonder　that　the　labor　union　movement　took　the　political　by…path；　seeking　salvation　in　the　promise　of　the　politician　and　in　the　panacea　of　fatuous　laws。　Now　there　were　to　be　discerned　the　beginnings　of　class　solidarity　among　the　working　people。　But　the　individual's　chances　to　improve　his　situation　were　still　very　great　and　opportunity　was　still　a　golden　word。

The　harsh　facts　of　the　hour；　however；　soon　began　to　call　for　united　action。　The　cities　were　expanding　with　such　eager　haste　that　proper　housing　conditions　were　overlooked。　Workingmen　were　obliged　to　live　in　wretched　structures。　Moreover；　human　beings　were　still　levied　on　for　debt　and　imprisoned　for　default　of　payment。　Children　of　less　than　sixteen　years　of　age　were　working　twelve　or　more　hours　a　day；　and　if　they　received　any　education　at　all；　it　was　usually　in　schools　charitably　called　〃ragged　schools〃　or　〃poor　schools；〃　or　〃pauper　schools。〃　There　was　no　adequate　redress　for　the　mechanic　if　his　wages　were　in　default；　for　lien　laws　had　not　yet　found　their　way　into　the　statute　books。　Militia　service　was　oppressive；　permitting　only　the　rich　to　buy　exemption。　It　was　still　considered　an　unlawful　conspiracy　to　act　in　unison　for　an　increase　in　pay　or　a　lessening　of　working　hours。　By　1840　the　pay　of　unskilled　labor　had　dropped　to　about　seventy…five　cents　a　day　in　the　overcrowded　cities；　and　in　the　winter；　in　either　city　or　country；　many　unskilled　workers　were　glad　to　work　for　merely　their　board。　The　lot　of　women　workers　was　especially　pitiful。　A　seamstress　by　hard　toil；　working　fifteen　hours　a　day　might　stitch　enough　shirts　to　earn　from　seventy…two　cents　to　a　dollar　and　twelve　cents　a　week。　Skilled　labor；　while　faring　better　in　wages；　shared　with　the　unskilled　in　the　universal　working　day　which　lasted　from　sun　to　sun。　Such　in　brief　were　the　conditions　that　brought　home　to　the　laboring　masses　that　homogeneous　consciousness　which　alone　makes　a　group　powerful　in　a　democracy。

The　movement　can　most　clearly　be　discerned　in　the　cities。　Philadelphia　claims　precedence　as　the　home　of　the　first　Trades'　Union。　The　master　cordwainers　had　organized　a　society　in　1792；　and　their　journeymen　had　followed　suit　two　years　later。　The　experiences　and　vicissitudes　of　these　shoemakers　furnished　a　useful　lesson　to　other　tradesmen；　many　of　whom　were　organized　into　unions。　But　they　were　isolated　organizations；　each　one　fighting　its　own　battles。　In　1897　the　Mechanics'　Union　of　Trade　Associations　was　formed。　Of　its　significance　John　R。　Commons　says：

England　is　considered　the　home　of　trade…unionism；　but　the　distinction　belongs　to　Philadelphia。。。。　The　first　trades'　union　in　England　was　that　of　Manchester；　organized　in　1829；　although　there　seems　to　have　been　an　attempt　to　organize　one　in　1824。　But　the　first　one　in　America　was　the　〃Mechanics'　Union　of　Trade　Associations；〃　organized　in　Philadelphia　in　1827；　two　years　earlier。　The　name　came　from　Manchester；　but　the　thing　from　Philadelphia。　Neither　union　lasted　long。　The　Manchester　union　lived　two　years；　and　the　Philadelphia　union　one　year。　But　the　Manchester　union　died　and　the　Philadelphia　union　metamorphosed　into　politics。　Here　again　Philadelphia　was　the　pioneer；　for　it　called　into　being　the　first　labor　party。　Not　only　this；　but　through　the　Mechanics'　Union　Philadelphia　started　probably　the　first　wage…earners'　paper　ever　publishedthe　'Mechanics　Free　Press'antedating；　in　January；　1828；　the　first　similar　journal　in　England　by　two　years。*

*　〃Labor　Organization　and　Labor　Politics；〃　1827…37；　in　the　〃Quarterly　Journal　of　Economics；〃　February；　1907。


The　union　had　its　inception　in　the　first　general　building　strike　called　in　America。　In　the　summer　of　1827　the　carpenters　struck　for　a　ten…hour　day。　They　were　soon　joined　by　the　bricklayers；　painters；　and　glaziers；　and　members　of　other　trades。　But　the　strike　failed　of　its　immediate　object。　A　second　effort　to　combine　the　various　trades　into　one　organization　was　made　in　1833；　when　the　Trades'　Union　of　the　City　and　County　of　Philadelphia；　was　formed。　Three　years　later　this　union　embraced　some　fifty　societies　with　over　ten　thousand　members。　In　June；　1835；　this　organization　undertook　what　was　probably　the　first　successful　general　strike　in　America。　It　began　among　the　cordwainers；　spread　to　the　workers　in　the　building　trades；　and　was　presently　joined　in　by　cigarmakers；　carters；　saddlers　and　harness　makers；　smiths；　plumbers；　bakers；　printers；　and　even　by　the　unskilled　workers　on　the　docks。　The　strikers'　demand　for　a　ten…hour　day　received　a　great　deal　of　support　from　the　influential　men　in　the　community。　After　a　mass　meeting　of　citizens　had　adopted　resolutions　endorsing　the　demands　of　the　union；　the　city　council　agreed　to　a　ten…hour　day　for　all　municipal　employees。

In　1833　the　carpenters　of　New　York　City　struck　for　an　increase　in　wages。　They　were　receiving　a　dollar　thirty…seven　and　a　half　cents　a　day；　they　asked　for　a　dollar　and　a　half。　They　obtained　the　support　of　other　workers；　notably　the　tailors；　printers；　brushmakers；　tobacconists；　and　masons；　and　succeeded　in　winning　their　strike　in　one　month。　The　printers；　who　have　always　been　alert　and　active　in　New　York　City；　elated　by　the　success　of　this　coordinate　effort；　sent　out　a　circular　calling　for　a　general　convention　of　all　the　trades　societies　of　the　city。　After　a　preliminary　meeting　in　July；　a　mass　meeting　was　held　in　December；　at　which　there　were　present　about　four　thousand　persons　representing　twenty…one　societies。　The　outcome　of　the　meeting　was　the　organization　of　the　General　Trades'　Union　of　New　York　City。

It　happened　in　the　following　year　that　Ely　Moore　of　the　Typographical　Association　and　the　first　president　of　the　new　union；　a　powerful　orator　and　a　sagacious　organizer；　was　elected　to　Congress　on　the　Jackson　ticket。　He　was　backed　by　Tammany　Hall；　always　on　the　alert　for　winners；　and　was　supported　by　the　mechanics；　artisans；　and　workingmen。　He　was　the　first　man　to　take　his　seat　in　Washington　as　the　avowed　representative　of　labor。

The　movement　for　a　ten…hour　day　was　now　in　full　swing；　and　the　years　1834…7　were　full　of　strikes。　The　most　spectacular　of　these　struggles　was　the　strike　of　the　tailors　of　New　York　in　1836；　in　the　course　of　which　twenty　strikers　were　arrested　for　conspiracy。　After　a　spirited　trial　attended　by　throngs　of　spectators；　the　men　were　found　guilty　by　a　jury　which　took　only　thirty　minutes　for　deliberation。　The　strikers　were　fined　50　each；　except　the　president　of　the　society；　who　was　fined　150。　After　the　trial　there　was　held　a　mass　meeting　which　was　attended；　according　to　the　〃Evening　Post；〃　by　twenty…seven　thousand　persons。　Resolutions　were　passed　declaring　that　〃to　all　acts　of　tyranny　and　injustice；　resistance　is　just　and　therefore　necessary；〃　and　〃that　the　construction　given　to　the　law　in　the　case　of　the　journeymen　tailors　is　not　only　ridiculous　and　weak　in　practice　but　unjust　in　principle　and　subversive　of　the　rights　and　liberties　of　American　citizens。〃　The　town　was　placarded　with　〃coffin〃　handbills；　a　practice　not　uncommon　in　those　days。

Enclosed　in　a　device　representing　a　coffin　were　these　words：

〃THE　RICH　AGAINST　THE　POOR！

〃Twenty　of　your　brethren　have　been　found　guilty　for　presuming　to　resist　a　reduction　in　their　wages！。。。。　Judge　Edwards　has　charged。。。the　Rich　are　the　only　judges　of　the　wants　of　the　poor。　On　Monday；　June　6；　1836；　the　Freemen　are　to　receive　their　sentence；　to　gratify　the　hellish　appetites　of　aristocracy！。。。。　Go！　Go！　Go！　Every　Freeman；　every　Workingman；　and　hear　the　melancholy　sound　of　the　earth　on　the　Coffin　of　Equality。　Let　the　Court　Room；　the　City…hallyea；　the　whole　Park；　be　filled　with　mourners！　But　remember；　offer　no　violence　to　Judge　Edwards！　Bend　meekly　and　receive　the　chains　wherewith　you　are　to　be　bound！　Keep　the　peace！　Above　all　things；　keep　the　peace！〃

The　〃Evening　Post〃　concludes　a　long　account　of　the　affair　by　calling　attention　to　the　fact　that　the　Trades'　Union　was　not　composed　of　〃only　foreigners。〃　〃It　is　a　low　calculation　when　we　estimate　that　two…thirds　of　the　workingmen　of　the　city；　numbering　several　thousand　persons；　belong　to　it；〃　and　that　〃it　is　controlled　and　supported　by　the　great　majority　of　our　native　born。〃

The　Boston　Trades'　Union　was　organized　in　1834　and　started　out　with　a　great　labor　parade　on　the　Fourth　of　July；　followed　by　a　dinner　served　to　a　thousand　persons　in　Faneuil　Hall。　This　union　was　formed　primarily　to　fight　for　the　ten…hour　day；　and　the　leading　crusaders　were　the　house　carpenters；　the　ship　carpenters；　and　the　masons。　Similar　unions　presently　sprang　up　in　other　cities；　including　Baltimore；　Albany；　Troy；　Washington；　Ne