the armies of labor-第6部分

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nd　bloomers；　people　sought　social　salvation　in　new　health　codes；　in　vegetarian　boarding…houses；　and　in　physical　culture　clubs；　and　some　pursued　the　way　to　perfection　through　sensual　religious　exercises。

In　this　seething　milieu；　this　medley　of　practical　humanitarianism　and　social　fantasies；　the　labor　movement　was　revived。　In　the　forties；　Thomas　Mooney；　an　observant　Irish　traveler　who　had　spent　several　years　in　the　United　States　wrote　as　follows*：

〃The　average　value　of　a　common　uneducated　labourer　is　eighty　cents　a　day。　Of　educated　or　mechanical　labour；　one　hundred　twenty…five　and　two　hundred　cents　a　day；　of　female　labour　forty　cents　a　day。　Against　meat；　flour；　vegetables；　and　groceries　at　one…third　less　than　they　rate　in　Great　Britain　and　Ireland；　against　clothing；　house　rent　and　fuel　at　about　equal；　against　public　taxes　at　about　three…fourths　less；　and　a　certainty　of　employment；　and　a　facility　of　acquiring　homes　and　lands；　and　education　for　children；　a　hundred　to　one　greater。　The　further　you　penetrate　into　the　country；　Patrick；　the　higher　in　general　will　you　find　the　value　of　labour；　and　the　cheaper　the　price　of　all　kinds　of　living。。。。　The　food　of　the　American　farmer；　mechanic　or　labourer　is　the　best　I　believe　enjoyed　by　any　similar　classes　in　the　whole　world。　At　every　meal　there　is　meat　or　fish　or　both；　indeed　I　think　the　women；　children；　and　sedentary　classes　eat　too　much　meat　for　their　own　good　health。〃

*　〃Nine　Years　in　America〃　（1850）。　p。　22。


This　highly　optimistic　picture；　written　by　a　sanguine　observer　from　the　land　of　greatest　agrarian　oppression；　must　be　shaded　by　contrasting　details。　The　truck　system　of　payment；　prevalent　in　mining　regions　and　many　factory　towns；　reduced　the　actual　wage　by　almost　one…half。　In　the　cities；　unskilled　immigrants　had　so　overcrowded　the　common　labor　market　that　competition　had　reduced　them　to　a　pitiable　state。　Hours　of　labor　were　generally　long　in　the　factories。　As　a　rule　only　the　skilled　artisan　had　achieved　the　ten…hour　day；　and　then　only　in　isolated　instances。　Woman's　labor　was　the　poorest　paid；　and　her　condition　was　the　most　neglected。　A　visitor　to　Lowell　in　1846　thus　describes　the　conditions　in　an　average　factory　of　that　town：

〃In　Lowell　live　between　seven　and　eight　thousand　young　women；　who　are　generally　daughters　of　farmers　of　the　different　States　of　New　England。　Some　of　them　are　members　of　families　that　were　rich　the　generation　before。。。。　The　operatives　work　thirteen　hours　a　day　in　the　summer　time；　and　from　daylight　to　dark　in　the　winter。　At　half…past　four　in　the　morning　the　factory　bell　rings　and　at　five　the　girls　must　be　in　the　mills。　A　clerk；　placed　as　a　watch；　observes　those　who　are　a　few　minutes　behind　the　time；　and　effectual　means　are　taken　to　stimulate　punctuality。。。。　At　seven　the　girls　are　allowed　thirty　minutes　for　breakfast；　and　at　noon　thirty　minutes　more　for　dinner；　except　during　the　first　quarter　of　the　year；　when　the　time　is　extended　to　forty…five　minutes。　But　within　this　time　they　must　hurry　to　their　boarding…houses　and　return　to　the　factory。。。。　At　seven　o'clock　in　the　evening　the　factory　bell　sounds　the　close　of　the　day's　work。〃

It　was　under　these　conditions　that　the　cooperative　movement　had　its　brief　day　of　experiment。　As　early　as　1828　the　workmen　of　Philadelphia　and　Cincinnati　had　begun　cooperative　stores。　The　Philadelphia　group　were　〃fully　persuaded；〃　according　to　their　constitution；　〃that　nothing　short　of　an　entire　change　in　the　present　regulation　of　trade　and　commerce　will　ever　be　permanently　beneficial　to　the　productive　part　of　the　community。〃　But　their　little　shop　survived　competition　for　only　a　few　months。　The　Cincinnati　〃Cooperative　Magazine〃　was　a　sort　of　combination　of　store　and　shop；　where　various　trades　were　taught；　but　it　also　soon　disappeared。

In　1845　the　New　England　Workingmen's　Association　organized　a　protective　union　for　the　purpose　of　obtaining　for　its　members　〃steady　and　profitable　employment〃　and　of　saving　the　retailer's　profit　for　the　purchaser。　This　movement　had　a　high　moral　flavor。　〃The　dollar　was　to　us　of　minor　importance；　humanitary　and　not　mercenary　were　our　motives；〃　reported　their　committee　on　organization　of　industry。　〃We　must　proceed　from　combined　stores　to　combined　shops；　from　combined　shops　to　combined　homes；　to　joint　ownership　in　God's　earth；　the　foundation　that　our　edifice　must　stand　upon。〃　In　this　ambitious　spirit　〃they　commenced　business　with　a　box　of　soap　and　half　a　chest　of　tea。〃　In　1852　they　had　167　branches；　a　capital　of　241；7191。66；　and　a　business　of　nearly　91；000；000　a　year。

In　the　meantime　similar　cooperative　movements　began　elsewhere。　The　tailors　of　Boston　struck　for　higher　wages　in　1850　and；　after　fourteen　weeks　of　futile　struggle；　decided　that　their　salvation　lay　in　cooperation　rather　than　in　trade　unionism；　which　at　best　afforded　only　temporary　relief。　About　seventy　of　them　raised　700　as　a　cooperative　nest　egg　and　netted　a　profit　of　510。60　the　first　year。　In　the　same　year　the　Philadelphia　printers；　disappointed　at　their　failure　to　force　a　higher　wage；　organized　a　cooperative　printing　press。

The　movement　spread　to　New　York；　where　a　strike　of　the　tailors　was　in　progress。　The　strikers　were　addressed　at　a　great　mass　meeting　by　Albert　Brisbane；　an　ardent　disciple　of　Fourier；　the　French　social　economist；　and　were　told　that　they　must　do　away　with　servitude　to　capital。　〃What　we　want　to　know；〃　said　Brisbane；　〃is　how　to　change；　peacefully；　the　system　of　today。　The　first　great　principle　is　combination。〃　Another　meeting　was　addressed　by　a　German；　a　follower　of　Karl　Marx；　who　uttered　in　his　native　tongue　these　words　that　sound　like　a　modern　I。W。W。　prophet：　〃Many　of　us　have　fought　for　liberty　in　the　fatherland。　We　came　here　because　we　were　opposed；　and　what　have　we　gained？　Nothing　but　misery；　hunger；　and　treading　down。　But　we　are　in　a　free　country　and　it　is　our　fault　if　we　do　not　get　our　rights。。。。　Let　those　who　strike　eat；　the　rest　starve。　Butchers　and　bakers　must　withhold　supplies。　Yes；　they　must　all　strike；　and　then　the　aristocrat　will　starve。　We　must　have　a　revolution。　We　cannot　submit　any　longer。〃　The　cry　of　〃Revolution！　Revolution！〃　was　taken　up　by　the　throng。

In　the　midst　of　this　agitation　a　New　York　branch　of　the　New　England　Protective　Union　was　organized　as　an　attempt　at　peaceful　revolution　by　cooperation。　The　New　York　Protective　Union　went　a　step　farther　than　the　New　England　Union。　Its　members　established　their　own　shops　and　so　became　their　own　employers。　And　in　many　other　cities　striking　workmen　and　eager　reformers　joined　hands　in　modest　endeavors　to　change　the　face　of　things。　The　revolutionary　movements　of　Europe　at　this　period　were　having　a　seismic　effect　upon　American　labor。　But　all　these　attempts　of　the　workingmen　to　tourney　a　rough　world　with　a　needle　were　foredoomed　to　failure。　Lacking　the　essential　business　experience　and　the　ability　to　cooperate；　they　were　soon　undone；　and　after　a　few　years　little　more　was　heard　of　cooperation。

In　the　meantime　another　economic　movement　gained　momentum　under　the　leadership　of　George　Henry　Evans；　who　was　a　land　reformer　and　may　be　called　a　precursor　of　Henry　George。　Evans　inaugurated　a　campaign　for　free　farms　to　entice　to　the　land　the　unprosperous　toilers　of　the　city。　In　spite　of　the　vast　areas　of　the　public　domain　still　unoccupied；　the　cities　were　growing　denser　and　larger　and　filthier　by　reason　of　the　multitudes　from　Ireland　and　other　countries　who　preferred　to　cast　themselves　into　the　eager　maw　of　factory　towns　rather　than　go　out　as　agrarian　pioneers。　To　such　Evans　and　other　agrarian　reformers　made　their　appeal。　For　example；　a　handbill　distributed　everywhere　in　1846　asked：

〃Are　you　an　American　citizen？　Then　you　are　a　joint　owner　of　the　public　lands。　Why　not　take　enough　of　your　property　to　provide　yourself　a　home？　Why　not　vote　yourself　a　farm？

〃Are　you　a　party　follower？　Then　you　have　long　enough　employed　your　vote　to　benefit　scheming　office　seekers。　Use　it　for　once　to　benefit　yourself；　Vote　yourself　a　farm。

〃Are　you　tired　of　slaveryof　drudging　for　othersof　poverty　and　its　attendant　miseries？　Then；　vote　yourself　a　farm。

〃Would　you　free　your　country　and　the　sons　of　toil　everywhere　from　the　heartless；　irresponsible　mastery　of　the　aristocracy　of　avarice？　。。。。　Then　join　with　your　neighbors　to　form　a　true　American　party。。。whose　chief　measures　will　be　first　to　limit　the　quantity　of　land　that　any　one　may　henceforth　monopolize　or　inherit；　and　second　to　make　the　public　lands　free　to　actual　settlers　only；　each　having　the　right　to　sell　his　improvements　to　any　man　not　possessed　of　other　lands。〃

〃Vote　yourself　a　farm〃　became　a　popular　shibboleth　and　a　part　of　the　standard　programme　of　organized　labor。　The　donation　of　public　lands　to　heads　of　families；　on　condition　of　occupancy　and　cultivation　for　a　term　of　years；　was　proposed　in　bills　repeatedly　introduced　in　Congress。　But　the　cry　of　opposition　went　up　from　the　older　States　that　they　would　be　bled　for　the　sake　of　the　newer；　that　giving　land　to　the　landless　was　encouraging　idleness　and　wantonness　and　spreading　demoralization；　and　that　Congress　had　no　more　power　to　give　away　land　than　it　had　to　give　away　money。　These　arguments　had　their　effect　at　the　Capitol；　and　it　was　not　until　the　new　Republican　party　came　into　power　pledged　to　〃a　complete　and　satisfactory　homestead　measure〃　that　the　Homestead　Act　of　1862　was　placed　on　the　statute　books。

A　characteristic　manifestation　of　the　humanitarian　impulse　of　the　forties　was　the　support　given　to　labor　in　its　renewed　demand　for　a　ten…hour　day。　It　has　already　been　indicated　how　this　movement　started　in　the　thirties；　how　its　object　was　achieved　by　a　few　highly　organized　trades；　and　how　it　was　interrupted　in　its　progress　by　the　panic　of　1837。　The　agitation；　however；　to　make　the　ten…hour　day　customary　throughout　the　country　was　not　long　in　coming　back　to　life。　In　March；　1840；　an　executive　order　of　President　Van　Buren　declaring　ten　hours　to　be　the　working　day　for　laborers　and　mechanics　in　government　employ　forced　the　issue　upon　private　employers。　The　earliest　concerted　action；　it　would　seem；　arose　in　New　England；　where　the　New　England　Workingmen's　Association；　later　called　the　Labor　Reform　League；　carried　on　the　crusade。　In　1845　a　committee　appointed　by　the　Massachusetts