the armies of labor-第7部分

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　the　Labor　Reform　League；　carried　on　the　crusade。　In　1845　a　committee　appointed　by　the　Massachusetts　Legislature　to　investigate　labor　conditions　affords　the　first　instance　on　record　of　an　American　legislature　concerning　itself　with　the　affairs　of　the　labor　world　to　the　extent　of　ordering　an　official　investigation。　The　committee　examined　a　number　of　factory　operatives；　both　men　and　women；　visited　a　few　of　the　mills；　gathered　some　statistics；　and　made　certain　neutral　and　specious　suggestions。　They　believed　the　remedy　for　such　evils　as　they　discovered　lay　not　in　legislation　but　〃in　the　progressive　improvement　in　art　and　science；　in　a　higher　appreciation　of　man's　destiny；　in　a　less　love　for　money；　and　a　more　ardent　love　for　social　happiness　and　intellectual　superiority。〃

The　first　ten…hour　law　was　passed　in　1847　by　the　New　Hampshire　Legislature。　It　provided　that　〃ten　hours　of　actual　labor　shall　be　taken　to　be　a　day's　work；　unless　otherwise　agreed　to　by　the　parties；〃　and　that　no　minor　under　fifteen　years　of　age　should　be　employed　more　than　ten　hours　a　day　without　the　consent　of　parent　or　guardian。　This　was　the　unassuming　beginning　of　a　movement　to　have　the　hours　of　toil　fixed　by　society　rather　than　by　contract。　This　law　of　New　Hampshire；　which　was　destined　to　have　a　widespread　influence；　was　hailed　by　the　workmen　everywhere　with　delight；　mass　meetings　and　processions　proclaimed　it　as　a　great　victory；　and　only　the　conservatives　prophesied　the　worthlessness　of　such　legislation。　Horace　Greeley　sympathetically　dissected　the　bill。　He　had　little　faith；　it　is　true；　in　legislative　interference　with　private　contracts。　〃But；〃　he　asks；　〃who　can　seriously　doubt　that　it　is　the　duty　of　the　Commonwealth　to　see　that　the　tender　frames　of　its　youth　are　not　shattered　by　excessively　protracted　toil？　。。。。　Will　any　one　pretend　that　ten　hours　per　day；　especially　at　confining　and　monotonous　avocations　which　tax　at　once　the　brain　and　the　sinews　are　not　quite　enough　for　any　child　to　labor　statedly　and　steadily？〃　The　consent　of　guardian　or　parent　he　thought　a　fraud　against　the　child　that　could　be　averted　only　by　the　positive　command　of　the　State　specifically　limiting　the　hours　of　child　labor。

In　the　following　year　Pennsylvania　enacted　a　law　declaring　ten　hours　a　legal　day　in　certain　industries　and　forbidding　children　under　twelve　from　working　in　cotton；　woolen；　silk；　or　flax　mills。　Children　over　fourteen；　however；　could；　by　special　arrangement　with　parents　or　guardians；　be　compelled　to　work　more　than　ten　hours　a　day。　〃This　act　is　very　much　of　a　humbug；〃　commented　Greeley；　〃but　it　will　serve　a　good　end。　Those　whom　it　was　intended　to　put　asleep　will　come　back　again　before　long；　and；　like　Oliver　Twist；　'want　some　more。'〃

The　ten…hour　movement　had　thus　achieved　social　recognition。　It　had　the　staunch　support　of　such　men　as　Wendell　Phillips；　Edward　Everett；　Horace　Greeley；　and　other　distinguished　publicists　and　philanthropists。　Public　opinion　was　becoming　so　strong　that　both　the　Whigs　and　Democrats　in　their　party　platforms　declared　themselves　in　favor　of　the　ten…hour　day。　When；　in　the　summer　of　1847；　the　British　Parliament　passed　a　ten…hour　law；　American　unions　sent　congratulatory　messages　to　the　British　workmen。　Gradually　the　various　States　followed　the　example　of　New　Hampshire　and　PennsylvaniaNew　Jersey　in　1851；　Ohio　in　1852；　and　Rhode　Island　in　1853and　the　〃ten…hour　system〃　was　legally　established。

But　it　was　one　thing　to　write　a　statute　and　another　to　enforce　it。　American　laws　were；　after　all；　based　upon　the　ancient　Anglo…Saxon　principle　of　private　contract。　A　man　could　agree　to　work　for　as　many　hours　as　he　chose；　and　each　employer　could　drive　his　own　bargain。　The　cotton　mill　owners　of　Allegheny　City；　for　example；　declared　that　they　would　be　compelled　to　run　their　mills　twelve　hours　a　day。　They　would　not；　of　course；　employ　children　under　twelve；　although　they　felt　deeply　concerned　for　the　widows　who　would　thereby　lose　the　wages　of　their　children。　But　they　must　run　on　a　twelve…hour　schedule　to　meet　competition　from　other　States。　So　they　attempted　to　make　special　contracts　with　each　employee。　The　workmen　objected　to　this　and　struck。　Finally　they　compromised　on　a　ten…hour　day　and　a　sixteen　per　cent　reduction　in　wages。　Such　an　arrangement　became　a　common　occurrence　in　the　industrial　world　of　the　middle　of　the　century。

In　the　meantime　the　factory　system　was　rapidly　recruiting　women　workers；　especially　in　the　New　England　textile　mills。　Indeed；　as　early　as　1825　〃tailoresses〃　of　New　York　and　other　cities　had　formed　protective　societies。　In　1829　the　mill　girls　of　Dover；　New　Hampshire；　caused　a　sensation　by　striking。　Several　hundred　of　them　paraded　the　streets　and；　according　to　accounts；　〃fired　off　a　lot　of　gunpowder。〃　In　1836　the　women　workers　in　the　Lowell　factories　struck　for　higher　wages　and　later　organized　a　Factory　Girls'　Association　which　included　more　than　2；500　members。　It　was　aimed　against　the　strict　regimen　of　the　boarding　houses；　which　were　owned　and　managed　by　the　mills。　〃As　our　fathers　resisted　unto　blood　the　lordly　avarice　of　the　British　Ministry；〃　cried　the　strikers；　〃so　we；　their　daughters；　never　will　wear　the　yoke　which　has　been　prepared　for　us。〃

In　this　vibrant　atmosphere　was　born　the　powerful　woman's　labor　union；　the　Female　Labor　Reform　Association；　later　called　the　Lowell　Female　Industrial　Reform　and　Mutual　Aid　Society。　Lowell　became　the　center　of　a　far…reaching　propaganda　characterized　by　energy　and　a　definite　conception　of　what　was　wanted。　The　women　joined　in　strikes；　carried　banners；　sent　delegates　to　the　labor　conventions；　and　were　zealous　in　propaganda。　It　was　the　women　workers　of　Massachusetts　who　first　forced　the　legislature　to　investigate　labor　conditions　and　who　aroused　public　sentiment　to　a　pitch　that　finally　compelled　the　enactment　of　laws　for　the　bettering　of　their　conditions。　When　the　mill　owners　in　Massachusetts　demanded　in　1846　that　their　weavers　tend　four　looms　instead　of　three；　the　women　promptly　resolved　that　〃we　will　not　tend　a　fourth　loom　unless　we　receive　the　same　pay　per　piece　as　on　three　。。。。　This　we　most　solemnly　pledge　ourselves　to　obtain。〃

In　New　York；　in　1845；　the　Female　Industry　Association　was　organized　at　a　large　meeting　held　in　the　court　house。　It　included　〃tailoresses；　plain　and　coarse　sewing；　shirt　makers；　book…folders　and　stickers；　capmakers；　straw…workers；　dressmakers；　crimpers；　fringe　and　lacemakers；〃　and　other　trades　open　to　women　〃who　were　like　oppressed。〃　The　New　York　Herald　reported　〃about　700　females　generally　of　the　most　interesting　age　and　appearance〃　in　attendance。　The　president　of　the　meeting　unfolded　a　pitiable　condition　of　affairs。　She　mentioned　several　employers　by　name　who　paid　only　from　ten　to　eighteen　cents　a　day；　and　she　stated　that；　after　acquiring　skill　in　some　of　the　trades　and　by　working　twelve　to　fourteen　hours　a　day；　a　woman　might　earn　twenty…five　cents　a　day！　〃How　is　it　possible；〃　she　exclaimed；　〃that　at　such　an　income　we　can　support　ourselves　decently　and　honestly？〃

So　we　come　to　the　fifties；　when　the　rapid　rise　in　the　cost　of　living　due　to　the　influx　of　gold　from　the　newly　discovered　California　mines　created　new　economic　conditions。　By　1853；　the　cost　of　living　had　risen　so　high　that　the　length　of　the　working　day　was　quite　forgotten　because　of　the　utter　inadequacy　of　the　wage　to　meet　the　new　altitude　of　prices。　Hotels　issued　statements　that　they　were　compelled　to　raise　their　rates　for　board　from　a　dollar　and　a　half　to　two　dollars　a　day。　Newspapers　raised　their　advertising　rates。　Drinks　went　up　from　six　cents　to　ten　and　twelve　and　a　half　cents。　In　Baltimore；　the　men　in　the　Baltimore　and　Ohio　Railway　shops　struck。　They　were　followed　by　all　the　conductors；　brakemen；　and　locomotive　engineers。　Machinists　employed　in　other　shops　soon　joined　them；　and　the　city's　industries　were　virtually　paralyzed。　In　New　York　nearly　every　industry　was　stopped　by　strikes。　In　Philadelphia；　Boston；　Pittsburgh；　in　cities　large　and　small；　the　striking　workmen　made　their　demands　known。

By　this　time　thoughtful　laborers　had　learned　the　futility　of　programmes　that　attempted　to　reform　society。　They　had　watched　the　birth　and　death　of　many　experiments。　They　had　participated　in　short…lived　cooperative　stores　and　shops；　they　had　listened　to　Owen's　alluring　words　and　had　seen　his　World　Convention　meet　and　adjourn；　had　witnessed　national　reform　associations；　leagues；　and　industrial　congresses　issue　their　high…pitched　resolutions；　and　had　united　on　legislative　candidates。　And　yet　the　old　world　wagged　on　in　the　old　way。　Wages　and　hours　and　working　conditions　could　be　changed；　they　had　learned；　only　by　coercion。　This　coercion　could　be　applied；　in　general　reforms；　only　by　society；　by　stress　of　public　opinion。　But　in　concrete　cases；　in　their　own　personal　environment；　the　coercion　had　to　be　first　applied　by　themselves。　They　had　learned　the　lesson　of　letting　the　world　in　general　go　its　way　while　they　attended　to　their　own　business。

In　the　early　fifties；　then；　a　new　species　of　union　appears。　It　discards　lofty　phraseology　and　the　attempt　at　world…reform　and　it　becomes　simply　a　trade　union。　It　restricts　its　house…cleaning　to　its　own　shop；　limits　its　demands　to　its　trade；　asks　for　a　minimum　wage　and　minimum　hours；　and　lays　out　with　considerable　detail　the　conditions　under　which　its　members　will　work。　The　weapons　in　its　arsenal　are　not　newthe　strike　and　the　boycott。　Now　that　he　has　learned　to　distinguish　essentials；　the　new　trade　unionist　can　bargain　with　his　employer；　and　as　a　result　trade　agreements　stipulating　hours；　wages；　and　conditions；　take　the　place　of　the　desultory　and　ineffective　settlements　which　had　hitherto　issued　from　labor　disputes。　But　it　was　not　without　foreboding　that　this　development　was　witnessed　by　the　adherents　of　the　status　quo。　According　to　a　magazine　writer　of　1853：

〃After　prescribing　the　rate　of　remuneration　many　of　the　Trades'　Unions　go　to　enact　laws　for　the　government　of　the　respective　departments；　to　all　of　which　the　employer　must　assent　。。。。　The　result　even　thus　far　is　that　there　is　found　no　limit　to　this　species　of　encroachment。　If　workmen　may　dictate　the　hours　and　mode　of　service；　and　the　number　and　description　of　hands　to　be　employed；　they　may　also　regulate　other　items　of　the　business　with　w