the armies of labor-第8部分

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r　and　description　of　hands　to　be　employed；　they　may　also　regulate　other　items　of　the　business　with　which　their　labor　is　connected。　Thus　we　find　that　within　a　few　days；　in　the　city　of　New　York；　the　longshoremen　have　taken　by　force　from　their　several　stations　the　horses　and　labor…saving　gear　used　for　delivering　cargoes；　it　being　part　of　their　regulations　not　to　allow　of　such　competition。〃

The　gravitation　towards　common　action　was　felt　over　a　wide　area　during　this　period。　Some　trades　met　in　national　convention　to　lay　down　rules　for　their　craft。　One　of　the　earliest　national　meetings　was　that　of　the　carpet…weavers　（1846）　in　New　York　City；　when　thirty…four　delegates；　representing　over　a　thousand　operatives；　adopted　rules　and　took　steps　to　prevent　a　reduction　in　wages。　The　National　Convention　of　Journeymen　Printers　met　in　1850；　and　out　of　this　emerged　two　years　later　an　organization　called　the　National　Typographical　Union；　which　ten　years　later　still；　on　the　admission　of　some　Canadian　unions；　became　the　International　Typographical　Union　of　North　America；　and　as　such　it　flourishes　today。　In　1855　the　Journeymen　Stone　Cutters'　Association　of　North　America　was　organized　and　in　the　following　year　the　National　Trade　Association　of　Hat　Finishers；　the　forerunner　of　the　United　Hatters　of　North　America。　In　1859　the　Iron　Molders'　Union　of　North　America　began　its　aggressive　career。

The　conception　of　a　national　trade　unity　was　now　well　formed；　compactly　organized　national　and　local　trade　unions　with　very　definite　industrial　aims　were　soon　to　take　the　place　of　ephemeral；　loose…jointed　associations　with　vast　and　vague　ambitions。　Early　in　this　period　a　new　impetus　was　given　to　organized　labor　by　the　historic　decision　of　Chief　Justice　Shaw　of　Massachusetts　in　a　case*　brought　against　seven　bootmakers　charged　with　conspiracy。　Their　offense　consisted　in　attempting　to　induce　all　the　workmen　of　a　given　shop　to　join　the　union　and　compel　the　master　to　employ　only　union　men。　The　trial　court　found　them　guilty；　but　the　Chief　Justice　decided　that　he　did　not　〃perceive　that　it　is　criminal　for　men　to　agree　together　to　exercise　their　own　acknowledged　rights　in　such　a　manner　as　best　to　subserve　their　own　interests。〃　In　order　to　show　criminal　conspiracy；　therefore；　on　the　part　of　a　labor　union；　it　was　necessary　to　prove　that　either　the　intent　or　the　method　was　criminal；　for　it　was　not　a　criminal　offense　to　combine　for　the　purpose　of　raising　wages　or　bettering　conditions　or　seeking　to　have　all　laborers　join　the　union。　The　liberalizing　influence　of　this　decision　upon　labor　law　can　hardly　be　over…estimated。

*　Commonwealth　vs。　Hunt。


The　period　closed　amidst　general　disturbances　and　forebodings；　political　and　economic。　In　1857　occurred　a　panic　which　thrust　the　problem　of　unemployment；　on　a　vast　scale；　before　the　American　consciousness。　Instead　of　demanding　higher　wages；　multitudes　now　cried　for　work。　The　marching　masses；　in　New　York；　carried　banners　asking　for　bread；　while　soldiers　from　Governor's　Island　and　marines　from　the　Navy　Yard　guarded　the　Custom　House　and　the　Sub…Treasury。　From　Philadelphia　to　New　Orleans；　from　Boston　to　Chicago；　came　the　same　story　of　banks　failing；　railroads　in　bankruptcy；　factories　closing；　idle　and　hungry　throngs　moving　restlessly　through　the　streets。　In　New　York　40；000；　in　Lawrence　3500；　in　Philadelphia　20；000；　were　estimated　to　be　out　of　work。　Labor　learned　anew　that　its　prosperity　was　inalienably　identified　with　the　well…being　of　industry　and　commerce；　and　society　learned　that　hunger　and　idleness　are　the　golden　opportunity　of　the　demagogue　and　agitator。　The　word　〃socialism〃　now　appears　more　and　more　frequently　in　the　daily　press　and　always　a　synonym　of　destruction　or　of　something　to　be　feared。　No　sooner　had　business　revived　than　the　great　shadow　of　internal　strife　was　cast　over　the　land；　and　for　the　duration　of　the　Civil　War　the　peril　of　the　nation　absorbed　all　the　energies　of　the　people。



CHAPTER　IV。　AMALGAMATION

After　Appomattox；　every　one　seemed　bent　on　finding　a　short　cut　to　opulence。　To　foreign　observers；　the　United　States　was　then　simply　a　scrambling　mass　of　selfish　units；　for　there　seemed　to　be　among　the　American　people　no　disinterested　group　to　balance　accounts　between　the　competing　elementsno　leisure　class；　living　on　secured　incomes；　mellowed　by　generations　of　travel；　education；　and　reflection；　no　bureaucracy　arbitrarily　guiding　the　details　of　governmental　routine；　no　aristocracy；　born　umpires　of　the　doings　of　their　underlings。　All　the　manifold　currents　of　life　seemed　swallowed　up　in　the　commercial　maelstrom。　By　the　standards　of　what　happened　in　this　season　of　exuberance　and　intense　materialism；　the　American　people　were　hastily　judged　by　critics　who　failed　to　see　that　the　period　was　but　the　prelude　to　a　maturer　national　life。

It　was　a　period　of　a　remarkable　industrial　expansion。　Then　〃plant〃　became　a　new　word　in　the　phraseology　of　the　market　place；　denoting　the　enlarged　factory　or　mill　and　suggesting　the　hardy　perennial；　each　succeeding　year　putting　forth　new　shoots　from　its　side。　The　products　of　this　seedtime　are　seen　in　the　colossal　industrial　growths　of　today。　Then　it　was　that　short　railway　lines　began　to　be　welded　into　〃systems；〃　that　the　railway　builders　began　to　strike　out　into　the　prairies　and　mountains　of　the　West；　and　that　partnerships　began　to　be　merged　into　corporations　and　corporations　into　trusts；　ever　reaching　out　for　the　greater　markets。　Meanwhile　the　inventive　genius　of　America　was　responding　to　the　call　of　the　time。　In　1877　Bell　telephoned　from　Boston　to　Salem；　two　years　later；　Brush　lighted　by　electricity　the　streets　of　San　Francisco。　In　1882　Edison　was　making　incandescent　electric　lights　for　New　York　and　operating　his　first　electric　car　in　Menlo　Park；　New　Jersey。

All　these　developments　created　a　new　demand　for　capital。　Where　formerly　a　manufacturer　had　made　products　to　order　or　for　a　small　number　of　known　customers；　now　he　made　on　speculation；　for　a　great　number　of　unknown　customers；　taking　his　risks　in　distant　markets。　Where　formerly　the　banker　had　lent　money　on　local　security；　now　he　gave　credit　to　vast　enterprises　far　away。　New　inventions　or　industrial　processes　brought　on　new　speculations。　This　new　demand　for　capital　made　necessary　a　new　system　of　credits；　which　was　erected　at　first；　as　the　recurring　panics　disclosed；　on　sand；　but　gradually；　through　costly　experience；　on　a　more　stable　foundation。

The　economic　and　industrial　development　of　the　time　demanded　not　only　new　money　and　credit　but　new　men。　A　new　type　of　executive　was　wanted；　and　he　soon　appeared　to　satisfy　the　need。　Neither　a　capitalist　nor　a　merchant；　he　combined　in　some　degree　the　functions　of　both；　added　to　them　the　greater　function　of　industrial　manager；　and　received　from　great　business　concerns　a　high　premium　for　his　talent　and　foresight。　This　Captain　of　Industry；　as　he　has　been　called；　is　the　foremost　figure　of　the　period；　the　hero　of　the　industrial　drama。

But　much　of　what　is　admirable　in　that　generation　of　nation　builders　is　obscured　by　the　industrial　anarchy　which　prevailed。　Everybody　was　for　himselfand　the　devil　was　busy　harvesting　the　hindmost。　There　were　〃rate…wars；〃　〃cut…rate　sales；〃　secret　intrigues；　and　rebates；　and　there　were　subterranean　passages　some；　indeed；　scarcely　under　the　surfaceto　council　chambers；　executive　mansions；　and　Congress。　There　were　extreme　fluctuations　of　industry；　prosperity　was　either　at　a　very　high　level　or　depression　at　a　very　low　one。　Prosperity　would　bring　on　an　expansion　of　credits；　a　rise　in　prices；　higher　cost　of　living；　strikes　and　boycotts　for　higher　wages；　then　depression　would　follow　with　the　shutdown　and　that　most　distressing　of　social　diseases；　unemployment。　During　the　panic　of　1873…74　many　thousands　of　men　marched　the　streets　crying　earnestly　for　work。

Between　the　panics；　strikes　became　a　part　of　the　economic　routine　of　the　country。　They　were　expected；　just　as　pay　days　and　legal　holidays　are　expected。　Now　for　the　first　time　came　strikes　that　can　only　be　characterized　as　stupendous。　They　were　not　mere　slight　economic　disturbances；　they　were　veritable　industrial　earthquakes。　In　1873　the　coal　miners　of　Pennsylvania；　resenting　the　truck　system　and　the　miserable　housing　which　the　mine　owners　forced　upon　them；　struck　by　the　tens　of　thousands。　In　Illinois；　Indiana；　Missouri；　Maryland；　Ohio；　and　New　York　strikes　occurred　in　all　sorts　of　industries。　There　were　the　usual　parades　and　banners；　some　appealing；　some　insulting；　and　all　the　while　the　militia　guarded　property。　In　July；　1877；　the　men　of　the　Baltimore　and　Ohio　Railroad　refused　to　submit　to　a　fourth　reduction　in　wages　in　seven　years　and　struck。　From　Baltimore　the　resentment　spread　to　Pennsylvania　and　culminated　with　riots　in　Pittsburgh。　All　the　anthracite　coal　miners　struck；　followed　by　most　of　the　bituminous　miners　of　Ohio；　Indiana；　and　Illinois。　The　militia　were　impotent　to　subdue　the　mobs；　Federal　troops　had　to　be　sent　by　President　Hayes　into　many　of　the　States；　and　a　proclamation　by　the　President　commanded　all　citizens　to　keep　the　peace。　Thus　was　Federal　authority　introduced　to　bolster　up　the　administrative　weakness　of　the　States；　and　the　first　step　was　taken　on　the　road　to　industrial　nationalization。

The　turmoil　had　hardly　subsided　when；　in　1880；　new　strikes　broke　out。　In　the　long　catalogue　of　the　strikers　of　that　year　are　found　the　ribbon　weavers　of　Philadelphia；　Paterson；　and　New　York；　the　stablemen　of　New　York；　New　Jersey；　and　San　Francisco；　the　cotton　yard　workers　of　New　Orleans；　the　cotton　weavers　of　New　England　and　New　York；　the　stockyard　employees　of　Chicago　and　Omaha；　the　potters　of　Green　Point；　Long　Island；　the　puddlers　of　Johnstown　and　Columbia；　Pennsylvania；　the　machinists　of　Buffalo；　the　tailors　of　New　York；　and　the　shoemakers　of　Indiana。　The　year　1881　was　scarcely　less　restive。　But　1886　is　marked　in　labor　annals　as　〃the　year　of　the　great　uprising；〃　when　twice　as　many　strikes　as　in　any　previous　year　were　reported　by　the　United　States　Commissioner　of　Labor；　and　when　these　strikes　reached　a　tragic　climax　in　the　Chicago　Haymarket　riots。

It　was　during　this　feverish　epoch　that　organized　labor　first　entered　the　arena　of　national　politics。　When　the　policy　as　to　the　national　currency　became　an　issue；　the　lure　of　chea