the armies of labor-第9部分

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It　was　during　this　feverish　epoch　that　organized　labor　first　entered　the　arena　of　national　politics。　When　the　policy　as　to　the　national　currency　became　an　issue；　the　lure　of　cheap　money　drew　labor　into　an　alliance　in　1880　with　the　Greenbackers；　whose　mad　cry　added　to　the　general　unrest。　In　this；　as　in　other　fatuous　pursuits；　labor　was　only　responding　to　the　forces　and　the　spirit　of　the　hour。　These　have　been　called　the　years　of　amalgamation；　but　they　were　also　the　years　of　tumult；　for；　while　amalgamation　was　achieved；　discipline　was　not。　Authority　imposed　from　within　was　not　sufficient　to　overcome　the　decentralizing　forces；　and　just　as　big　business　had　yet　to　learn　by　self…imposed　discipline　how　to　overcome　the　extremely　individualistic　tendencies　which　resulted　in　trade　anarchy；　so　labor　had　yet　to　learn　through　discipline　the　lessons　of　self…restraint。　Moreover；　in　the　sudden　expansion　and　great　enterprises　of　these　days；　labor　even　more　than　capital　lost　in　stability。　One　great　steadying　influence；　the　old　personal　relation　between　master　and　servant；　which　prevailed　during　the　days　of　handicraft　and　even　of　the　small　factory；　had　disappeared　almost　completely。　Now　labor　was　put　up　on　the　marketa　heartless　term　descriptive　of　a　condition　from　which　human　beings　might　be　expected　to　react　violentlyand　they　did；　for　human　nature　refused　to　be　an　inert；　marketable　thing。

The　labor　market　must　expand　with　the　trader's　market。　In　1860　there　were　about　one　and　a　third　million　wage…earners　in　the　United　States；　in　1870　well　over　two　million；　in　1880　nearly　two　and　three…quarters　million；　and　in　1890　over　four　and　a　quarter　million。　The　city　sucked　them　in　from　the　country；　but　by　far　the　larger　augmentation　came　from　Europe；　and　the　immigrant；　normally　optimistic；　often　untaught；　sometimes　sullen　and　filled　with　a　destructive　resentment；　and　always　accustomed　to　low　standards　of　living；　added　to　the　armies　of　labor　his　vast　and　complex　bulk。

There　were　two　paramount　issueswages　and　the　hours　of　labor　to　which　all　other　issues　were　and　always　have　been　secondary。　Wages　tend　constantly　to　become　inadequate　when　the　standard　of　living　is　steadily　rising；　and　they　consequently　require　periodical　readjustment。　Hours　of　labor；　of　course；　are　not　subject　in　the　same　degree　to　external　conditions。　But　the　tendency　has　always　been　toward　a　shorter　day。　In　a　previous　chapter；　the　inception　of　the　ten…hour　movement　was　outlined。　Presently　there　began　the　eight…hour　movement。　As　early　as　1842　the　carpenters　and　caulkers　of　the　Charleston　Navy　Yard　achieved　an　eight…hour　day；　but　1863　may　more　properly　be　taken　as　the　beginning　of　the　movement。　In　this　year　societies　were　organized　in　Boston　and　its　vicinity　for　the　precise　purpose　of　winning　the　eight…hour　day；　and　soon　afterwards　a　national　Eight…Hour　League　was　established　with　local　leagues　extending　from　New　England　to　San　Francisco　and　New　Orleans。

This　movement　received　an　intelligible　philosophy；　and　so　a　new　vitality；　from　Ira　Steward；　a　member　of　the　Boston　Machinists'　and　Blacksmiths'　Union。　Writing　as　a　workingman　for　workingmen；　Steward　found　in　the　standard　of　living　the　true　reason　for　a　shorter　workday。　With　beautiful　simplicity　he　pointed　out　to　the　laboring　man　that　the　shorter　period　of　labor　would　not　mean　smaller　pay；　and　to　the　employer　that　it　would　not　mean　a　diminished　output。　On　the　contrary；　it　would　be　mutually　beneficial；　for　the　unwearied　workman　could　produce　as　much　in　the　shorter　day　as　the　wearied　workman　in　the　longer。　〃As　long；〃　Steward　wrote；　〃as　tired　human　hands　do　most　of　the　world's　hard　work；　the　sentimental　pretense　of　honoring　and　respecting　the　horny…handed　toiler　is　as　false　and　absurd　as　the　idea　that　a　solid　foundation　for　a　house　can　be　made　out　of　soap　bubbles。〃

In　1865　Steward's　pamphlet；　〃A　Reduction　of　Hours　and　Increase　of　Wages；〃　was　widely　circulated　by　the　Boston　Labor　Reform　Association。　It　emphasized　the　value　of　leisure　and　its　beneficial　reflex　effect　upon　both　production　and　consumption。　Gradually　these　well　reasoned　and　conservatively　expressed　doctrines　found　champions　such　as　Wendell　Phillips；　Henry　Ward　Beecher；　and　Horace　Greeley　to　give　them　wider　publicity　and　to　impress　them　upon　the　public　consciousness。　In　1867　Illinois；　Missouri；　and　New　York　passed　eight…hour　laws　and　Wisconsin　declared　eight　hours　a　day's　work　for　women　and　children。　In　1868　Congress　established　an　eight…hour　day　for　public　work。　These　were　promising　signs；　though　the　battle　was　still　far　from　being　won。　The　eight…hour　day　has　at　last　received　〃the　sanction　of　society〃to　use　the　words　of　President　Wilson　in　his　message　to　Congress　in　1916；　when　he　called　for　action　to　avert　a　great　railway　strike。　But　to　win　that　sanction　required　over　half　a　century　of　popular　agitation；　discussion；　and　economic　and　political　evolution。

Such；　in　brief；　were　the　general　business　conditions　of　the　country　and　the　issues　which　engaged　the　energies　of　labor　reformers　during　the　period　following　the　Civil　War。　Meanwhile　great　changes　were　made　in　labor　organizations。　Many　of　the　old　unions　were　reorganized；　and　numerous　local　amalgamations　took　place。　Most　of　the　organizations　now　took　the　form　of　secret　societies　whose　initiations　were　marked　with　naive　formalism　and　whose　routines　were　directed　by　a　group　of　officers　with　royal　titles　and　fortified　by　signs；　passwords；　and　ritual。　Some　of　these　orders　decorated　the　faithful　with　high…sounding　degrees。　The　societies　adopted　fantastic　names　such　as　〃The　Supreme　Mechanical　Order　of　the　Sun；〃　〃The　Knights　of　St。　Crispin；〃　and　〃The　Noble　Order　of　the　Knights　of　Labor；〃　of　which　more　presently。

Meanwhile；　too；　there　was　a　growing　desire　to　unify　the　workers　of　the　country　by　some　sort　of　national　organization。　The　outcome　was　a　notable　Labor　Congress　held　at　Baltimore　in　August；　1866；　which　included　all　kinds　of　labor　organizations　and　was　attended　by　seventy…seven　delegates　from　thirteen　States。　In　the　light　of　subsequent　events　its　resolutions　now　seem　conservative　and　constructive。　This　Congress　believed　that　〃all　reforms　in　the　labor　movement　can　only　be　effected　by　an　intelligent；　systematic　effort　of　the　industrial　classes　。　。　。　through　the　trades　organizations。〃　Of　strikes　it　declared　that　〃they　have　been　injudicious　and　ill…advised；　the　result　of　impulse　rather　than　principle；。。。and　we　would　therefore　discountenance　them　except　as　a　dernier　ressort；　and　when　all　means　for　an　amicable　and　honorable　adjustment　has　been　abandoned。〃　It　issued　a　cautious　and　carefully　phrased　Address　to　the　Workmen　throughout　the　Country；　urging　them　to　organize　and　assuring　them　that　〃the　first　thing　to　be　accomplished　before　we　can　hope　for　any　great　results　is　the　thorough　organization　of　all　the　departments　of　labor。〃

The　National　Labor　Union　which　resulted　from　this　convention　held　seven　Annual　Congresses；　and　its　proceedings　show　a　statesmanlike　conservatism　and　avoid　extreme　radicalism。　This　organization；　which　at　its　high　tide　represented　a　membership　of　640；000；　in　its　brief　existence　was　influential　in　three　important　matters：　first；　it　pointed　the　way　to　national　amalgamation　and　was　thus　a　forerunner　of　more　lasting　efforts　in　this　direction；　secondly；　it　had　a　powerful　influence　in　the　eight…hour　movement；　and；　thirdly；　it　was　largely　instrumental　in　establishing　labor　bureaus　and　in　gathering　statistics　for　the　scientific　study　of　labor　questions。　But　the　National　Labor　Union　unfortunately　went　into　politics；　and　politics　proved　its　undoing。　Upon　affiliating　with　the　Labor　Reform　party　it　dwindled　rapidly；　and　after　1871　it　disappeared　entirely。

One　of　the　typical　organizations　of　the　time　was　the　Order　of　the　Knights　of　St。　Crispin；　so　named　after　the　patron　saint　of　the　shoemakers；　and　accessible　only　to　members　of　that　craft。　It　was　first　conceived　in　1864　by　Newell　Daniels；　a　shoemaker　in　Milford；　Massachusetts；　but　no　organization　was　effected　until　1867；　when　the　founder　had　moved　to　Milwaukee。　The　ritual　and　constitution　he　had　prepared　was　accepted　then　by　a　group　of　seven　shoemakers；　and　in　four　years　this　insignificant　mustard　seed　had　grown　into　a　great　tree。　The　story　is　told　by　Frank　K。　Foster；*　who　says；　speaking　of　the　order　in　1868：　〃It　made　and　unmade　politicians；　it　established　a　monthly　journal；　it　started　cooperative　stores；　it　fought；　often　successfully；　against　threatened　reductions　of　wages。。。；　it　became　the　undoubted　foremost　trade　organization　of　the　world。〃　But　within　five　years　the　order　was　rent　by　factionalism　and　in　1878　was　acknowledged　to　be　dead。　It　perished　from　various　causespartly　because　it　failed　to　assimilate　or　imbue　with　its　doctrines　the　thousands　of　workmen　who　subscribed　to　its　rules　and　ritual；　partly　because　of　the　jealousy　and　treachery　which　is　the　fruitage　of　sudden　prosperity；　partly　because　of　failure　to　fulfill　the　fervent　hopes　of　thousands　who　joined　it　as　a　prelude　to　the　industrial　millennium；　but　especially　it　failed　to　endure　because　it　was　founded　on　an　economic　principle　which　could　not　be　imposed　upon　society。　The　rule　which　embraced　this　principle　reads　as　follows：　〃No　member　of　this　Order　shall　teach；　or　aid　in　teaching；　any　fact　or　facts　of　boot　or　shoemaking；　unless　the　lodge　shall　give　permission　by　a　three…fourths　vote。。。provided　that　this　article　shall　not　be　so　construed　as　to　prevent　a　father　from　teaching　his　own　son。　Provided　also；　that　this　article　shall　not　be　so　construed　as　to　hinder　any　member　of　this　organization　from　learning　any　or　all　parts　of　the　trade。〃　The　medieval　craft　guild　could　not　so　easily　be　revived　in　these　days　of　rapid　changes；　when　a　new　stitching　machine　replaced　in　a　day　a　hundred　workmen。　And　so　the　Knights　of　St。　Crispin　fell　a　victim　to　their　own　greed。

*　〃The　Labor　Movement；　the　Problem　of　Today；〃　edited　by　George　E。　McNeill；　Chapter　VIII。


The　Noble　Order　of　the　Knights　of　Labor；　another　of　those　societies　of　workingmen；　was　organized　in　November；　1869；　by　Uriah　S。　Stephens；　a　Philadelphia　garment　cutter；　with　the　assistance　of　six　fellow　craftsmen。　It　has　been　said　of　Stephens　that　he　was　〃a　man　of　great　force　of　character；　a　skilled　mechanic；　with　the　love　of　books　which　enabled　him　to　pursue　his　studies　duri