tracks of a rolling stone-第21部分

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　　First；　as　they　regard　Society；　secondly；　as　they　regard　the　　offender。

Where　capital　punishment　is　resorted　to；　the　sole　end　in　view　　is　the　protection　of　Society。　　The　malefactor　being　put　to　　death；　there　can　be　no　thought　of　his　amendment。　　And　so　far　　as　this　particular　criminal　is　concerned；　Society　is　　henceforth　in　safety。

But　（looking　to　the　individual）；　as　equal　security　could　be　　obtained　by　his　imprisonment　for　life；　the　extreme　measure　of　　putting　him　to　death　needs　justification。　　This　is　found　in　　the　assumption　that　death　being　the　severest　of　all　　punishments　now　permissible；　no　other　penalty　is　so　　efficacious　in　preventing　the　crime　or　crimes　for　which　it　is　　inflicted。　　Is　the　assumption　borne　out　by　facts；　or　by　　inference？

For　facts　we　naturally　turn　to　statistics。　　Switzerland　　abolished　capital　punishment　in　1874；　but　cases　of　　premeditated　murder　having　largely　increased　during　the　next　　five　years；　it　was　restored　by　Federal　legislation　in　1879。　　　Still　there　is　nothing　conclusive　to　be　inferred　from　this　　fact。　　We　must　seek　for　guidance　elsewhere。

Reverting　to　the　above　assumption；　we　must　ask：　　First；　Is　　the　death　punishment　the　severest　of　all　evils；　and　to　what　　extent　does　the　fear　of　it　act　as　a　preventive？　　Secondly；　Is　　it　true　that　no　other　punishment　would　serve　as　powerfully　in　　preventing　murder　by　intimidation？

Is　punishment　by　death　the　most　dreaded　of　all　evils？　　'This　　assertion；'　says　Bentham；　'is　true　with　respect　to　the　　majority　of　mankind；　it　is　not　true　with　respect　to　the　　greatest　criminals。'　　It　is　pretty　certain　that　a　malefactor　　steeped　in　crime；　living　in　extreme　want；　misery　and　　apprehension；　must；　if　he　reflects　at　all；　contemplate　a　　violent　end　as　an　imminent　possibility。　　He　has　no　better　　future　before　him；　and　may　easily　come　to　look　upon　death　　with　brutal　insensibility　and　defiance。　　The　indifference　　exhibited　by　the　garrotted　man　getting　up　to　adjust　his　chair　　is　probably　common　amongst　criminals　of　his　type。

Again；　take　such　a　crime　as　that　of　the　Cuban's：　　the　passion　　which　leads　to　it　is　the　fiercest　and　most　ungovernable　which　　man　is　subject　to。　　Sexual　jealousy　also　is　one　of　the　most　　frequent　causes　of　murder。　　So　violent　is　this　passion　that　　the　victim　of　it　is　often　quite　prepared　to　sacrifice　life　　rather　than　forego　indulgence；　or　allow　another　to　supplant　　him；　both　men　and　women　will　gloat　over　the　murder　of　a　　rival；　and　gladly　accept　death　as　its　penalty；　rather　than　　survive　the　possession　of　the　desired　object　by　another。

Further；　in　addition　to　those　who　yield　to　fits　of　passion；　　there　is　a　class　whose　criminal　promptings　are　hereditary：　　a　　large　number　of　unfortunates　of　whom　it　may　almost　be　said　　that　they　were　destined　to　commit　crimes。　　'It　is　unhappily　a　　fact；'　says　Mr。　Francis　Galton　（'Inquiries　into　Human　　Faculty'）；　'that　fairly　distinct　types　of　criminals　breeding　　true　to　their　kind　have　become　established。'　　And　he　gives　　extraordinary　examples；　which　fully　bear　out　his　affirmation。　　　We　may　safely　say　that；　in　a　very　large　number　of　cases；　the　　worst　crimes　are　perpetrated　by　beings　for　whom　the　death　　penalty　has　no　preventive　terrors。

But　it　is　otherwise　with　the　majority。　　Death　itself；　apart　　from　punitive　aspects；　is　a　greater　evil　to　those　for　whom　　life　has　greater　attractions。　　Besides　this；　the　permanent　　disgrace　of　capital　punishment；　the　lasting　injury　to　the　　criminal's　family　and　to　all　who　are　dear　to　him；　must　be　far　　more　cogent　incentives　to　self…control　than　the　mere　fear　of　　ceasing　to　live。

With　the　criminal　and　most　degraded　class　…　with　those　who　　are　actuated　by　violent　passions　and　hereditary　taints；　the　　class　by　which　most　murders　are　committed　…　the　death　　punishment　would　seem　to　be　useless　as　an　intimidation　or　an　　example。

With　the　majority　it　is　more　than　probable　that　it　exercises　　a　strong　and　beneficial　influence。　　As　no　mere　social　　distinction　can　eradicate　innate　instincts；　there　must　be　a　　large　proportion　of　the　majority；　the　better…to…do；　who　are　　both　occasionally　and　habitually　subject　to　criminal　　propensities；　and　who　shall　say　how　many　of　these　are　　restrained　from　the　worst　of　crimes　by　fear　of　capital　　punishment　and　its　consequences？

On　these　grounds；　if　they　be　not　fallacious；　the　retention　of　　capital　punishment　may　be　justified。

Secondly。　　Is　the　assumption　tenable　that　no　other　penalty　　makes　so　strong　an　impression　or　is　so　pre…eminently　　exemplary？　　Bentham　thus　answers　the　question：　　'It　appears　　to　me　that　the　contemplation　of　perpetual　imprisonment；　　accompanied　with　hard　labour　and　occasional　solitary　　confinement；　would　produce　a　deeper　impression　on　the　minds　　of　persons　in　whom　it　is　more　eminently　desirable　that　that　　impression　should　be　produced　than　even　death　itself。　。　。　。　　All　that　renders　death　less　formidable　to　them　renders　　laborious　restraint　proportionably　more　irksome。'　　There　is　　doubtless　a　certain　measure　of　truth　in　these　remarks。　　But　　Bentham　is　here　speaking　of　the　degraded　class；　and　is　it　　likely　that　such　would　reflect　seriously　upon　what　they　never　　see　and　only　know　by　hearsay？　　Think　how　feeble　are　their　　powers　of　imagination　and　reflection；　how　little　they　would　　be　impressed　by　such　additional　seventies　as　'occasional　　solitary　confinement；'　the　occurrence　and　the　effects　of　　which　would　be　known　to　no　one　outside　the　jail。

As　to　the　'majority；'　the　higher　classes；　the　fact　that　men　　are　often　imprisoned　for　offences　…　political　and　others　…　　which　they　are　proud　to　suffer　for；　would　always　attenuate　　the　ignominy　attached　to　'imprisonment。'　　And　were　this　the　　only　penalty　for　all　crimes；　for　first…class　misdemeanants　　and　for　the　most　atrocious　of　criminals　alike；　the　　distinction　would　not　be　very　finely　drawn　by　the　interested；　　at　the　most；　the　severest　treatment　as　an　alternative　to　　capital　punishment　would　always　savour　of　extenuating　　circumstances。

There　remain　two　other　points　of　view　from　which　the　question　　has　to　be　considered：　　one　is　what　may　be　called　the　　Vindictive；　the　other；　directly　opposed　to　it；　the　　Sentimental　argument。　　The　first　may　be　dismissed　with　a　word　　or　two。　　In　civilised　countries　torture　is　for　ever　　abrogated；　and　with　it；　let　us　hope；　the　idea　of　judicial　　vengeance。

The　LEX　TALIONIS　…　the　Levitic　law　…　'Eye　for　eye；　tooth　for　　tooth；'　is　befitting　only　for　savages。　　Unfortunately　the　　Christian　religion　still　promulgates　and　passionately　clings　　to　the　belief　in　Hell　as　a　place　or　state　of　everlasting　　torment　…　that　is　to　say；　of　eternal　torture　inflicted　for　no　　ultimate　end　save　that　of　implacable　vengeance。　　Of　all　the　　miserable　superstitions　ever　hatched　by　the　brain　of　man　　this；　as　indicative　of　its　barbarous　origin；　is　the　most　　degrading。　　As　an　ordinance　ascribed　to　a　Being　worshipped　as　　just　and　beneficent；　it　is　blasphemous。

The　Sentimental　argument；　like　all　arguments　based　upon　　feeling　rather　than　reason；　though　not　without　merit；　is　　fraught　with　mischief　which　far　outweighs　it。　　There　are　　always　a　number　of　people　in　the　world　who　refer　to　their　　feelings　as　the　highest　human　tribunal。　　When　the　reasoning　　faculty　is　not　very　strong；　the　process　of　ratiocination　　irksome；　and　the　issue　perhaps　unacceptable；　this　course　　affords　a　convenient　solution　to　many　a　complicated　problem。　　　It　commends　itself；　moreover；　to　those　who　adopt　it；　by　the　　sense　of　chivalry　which　it　involves。　　There　is　something　　generous　and　noble；　albeit　quixotic；　in　siding　with　the　weak；　　even　if　they　be　in　the　wrong。　　There　is　something　charitable　　in　the　judgment；　'Oh！　poor　creature；　think　of　his　adverse　　circumstances；　his　ignorance；　his　temptation。　　Let　us　be　　merciful　and　forgiving。'　　In　practice；　however；　this　often　　leads　astray。　　Thus　in　most　cases；　even　where　premeditated　　murder　is　proved　to　the　hilt；　the　sympathy　of　the　　sentimentalist　is　invariably　with　the　murderer；　to　the　　complete　oblivion　of　the　victim's　family。

Bentham；　speaking　of　the　humanity　plea；　thus　words　its　　argument：　　'Attend　not　to　the　sophistries　of　reason；　which　　often　deceive；　but　be　governed　by　your　hearts；　which　will　　always　lead　you　right。　　I　reject　without　hesitation　the　　punishment　you　propose：　　it　violates　natural　feelings；　it　　harrows　up　the　susceptible　mind；　it　is　tyrannical　and　cruel。'　　　Such　is　the　language　of　your　sentimental　orators。

'But　abolish　any　one　penal　law　merely　because　it　is　repugnant　　to　the　feelings　of　a　humane　heart；　and；　if　consistent；　you　　abolish　the　whole　penal　code。　　There　is　not　one　of　its　　provisions　that　does　not；　in　a　more　or　less　painful　degree；　　wound　the　sensibility。'

As　this　writer　elsewhere　observes：　　'It　is　only　a　virtue　when　　justice　has　done　its　work；　&c。　　Before　this；　to　forgive　　injuries　is　to　invite　their　perpetration　…　is　to　be；　not　the　　friend；　but　the　enemy　of　society。　　What　could　wickedness　　desire　more　than　an　arrangement　by　which　offences　should　be　　always　followed　by　pardon？'

Sentiment　is　the　ULTIMA　RATIO　FEMINARUM；　and　of　men　whose　　natures　are　of　the　epicene　gender。　　It　is　a　luxury　we　must　　forego　in　the　face　of　the　stern　duties　which　evil　compels　us　　to　encounter。

There　is　only　one　other　argument　against　capital　punishment　　that　is　worth　considering。

The　objection　so　strenuously　pleaded　by　Dickens　in　his　　letters　to　the　'Times'　…　viz。　the　brutalising　effects　upon　　the　degraded　crowds　which　witnessed　public　executions　…　is　no　　longer　apposite。　　But　it　may　still　be　urged　with　no　little　　force　that　the　extreme　severity　of　the　sentence　induces　all　　concerned　in　the　conviction　of　the　accused　to　shirk　the　　responsibility。　　Informers；　prosecutors；　witnesses；　judges；　　and　jurymen　are；　as　a　rule；　liable　to　reluctance　as　to　the　　performance　of　their　respective　parts　in　the　melancholy　　drama。'　　The　consequence　is　that　'the　benefit　of　the　doubt；'　　while　salving　the　consciences　of　these　servants　of　the　law；　　not　unfrequently　turns　a　real　criminal　loose　upon　society；　　whereas；　had　any　other　penalty　than　death　been　feasible；　the　　same　person　would　have　been　found　guilty。

Much　might　be　said　on　either　side；　but　on　the　whole　it　would　　seem　wisest　to　leave　things　…　in　this　country　…　as　they　are；　　and；　for　one；　I　am　inclined　to　the　be