the origin of species(物种起源)-第32部分

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muscle。　Although　no　graduated　links　of　structure；　fitted　for　gliding　through　the　air；　now　connect　the　Galeopithecus　with　the　other　Lemuridae；　yet　I　can　see　no　difficulty　in　supposing　that　such　links　formerly　existed；　and　that　each　had　been　formed　by　the　same　steps　as　in　the　case　of　the　less　perfectly　gliding　squirrels；　and　that　each　grade　of　structure　had　been　useful　to　its　possessor。　Nor　can　I　see　any　insuperable　difficulty　in　further　believing　it　possible　that　the　membrane…connected　fingers　and　fore…arm　of　the　Galeopithecus　might　be　greatly　lengthened　by　natural　selection；　and　this；　as　far　as　the　organs　of　flight　are　concerned；　would　convert　it　into　a　bat。　In　bats　which　have　the　wing…membrane　extended　from　the　top　of　the　shoulder　to　the　tail；　including　the　hind…legs；　we　perhaps　see　traces　of　an　apparatus　originally　constructed　for　gliding　through　the　air　rather　than　for　flight。　
If　about　a　dozen　genera　of　birds　had　become　extinct　or　were　unknown；　who　would　have　ventured　to　have　surmised　that　birds　might　have　existed　which　used　their　wings　solely　as　flappers；　like　the　logger…headed　duck　（Micropterus　of　Eyton）；　as　fins　in　the　water　and　front　legs　on　the　land；　like　the　penguin；　as　sails；　like　the　ostrich；　and　functionally　for　no　purpose；　like　the　Apteryx。　Yet　the　structure　of　each　of　these　birds　is　good　for　it；　under　the　conditions　of　life　to　which　it　is　exposed；　for　each　has　to　live　by　a　struggle；　but　it　is　not　necessarily　the　best　possible　under　all　possible　conditions。　It　must　not　be　inferred　from　these　remarks　that　any　of　the　grades　of　wing…structure　here　alluded　to；　which　perhaps　may　all　have　resulted　from　disuse；　indicate　the　natural　steps　by　which　birds　have　acquired　their　perfect　power　of　flight；　but　they　serve；　at　least；　to　show　what　diversified　means　of　transition　are　possible。　
Seeing　that　a　few　members　of　such　water…breathing　classes　as　the　Crustacea　and　Mollusca　are　adapted　to　live　on　the　land；　and　seeing　that　we　have　flying　birds　and　mammals；　flying　insects　of　the　most　diversified　types；　and　formerly　had　flying　reptiles；　it　is　conceivable　that　flying…fish；　which　now　glide　far　through　the　air；　slightly　rising　and　turning　by　the　aid　of　their　fluttering　fins；　might　have　been　modified　into　perfectly　winged　animals。　If　early　transitional　state　they　had　been　inhabitants　of　the　open　ocean；　and　had　used　their　incipient　organs　of　flight　exclusively；　as　far　as　we　know；　to　escape　being　devoured　by　other　fish？　
When　we　see　any　structure　highly　perfected　for　any　particular　habit；　as　the　wings　of　a　bird　for　flight；　we　should　bear　in　mind　that　animals　displaying　early　transitional　grades　of　the　structure　will　seldom　continue　to　exist　to　the　present　day；　for　they　will　have　been　supplanted　by　the　very　process　of　perfection　through　natural　selection。　Furthermore；　we　may　conclude　that　transitional　grades　between　structures　fitted　for　very　different　habits　of　life　will　rarely　have　been　developed　at　an　early　period　in　great　numbers　and　under　many　subordinate　forms。　Thus；　to　return　to　our　imaginary　illustration　of　the　flying…fish；　it　does　not　seem　probable　that　fishes　capable　of　true　flight　would　have　been　developed　under　many　subordinate　forms；　for　taking　prey　of　many　kinds　in　many　ways；　on　the　land　and　in　the　water；　until　their　organs　of　flight　had　come　to　a　high　stage　of　perfection；　so　as　to　have　given　them　a　decided　advantage　over　other　animals　in　the　battle　for　life。　Hence　the　chance　of　discovering　species　with　transitional　grades　of　structure　in　a　fossil　condition　will　always　be　less；　from　their　having　existed　in　lesser　numbers；　than　in　the　case　of　species　with　fully　developed　structures。　
I　will　now　give　two　or　three　instances　of　diversified　and　of　changed　habits　in　the　individuals　of　the　same　species。　When　either　case　occurs；　it　would　be　easy　for　natural　selection　to　fit　the　animal；　by　some　modification　of　its　structure；　for　its　changed　habits；　or　exclusively　for　one　of　its　several　different　habits。　But　it　is　difficult　to　tell；　and　immaterial　for　us；　whether　habits　generally　change　first　and　structure　afterwards；　or　whether　slight　modifications　of　structure　lead　to　changed　habits；　both　probably　often　change　almost　simultaneously。　Of　cases　of　changed　habits　it　will　suffice　merely　to　allude　to　that　of　the　many　British　insects　which　now　feed　on　exotic　plants；　or　exclusively　on　artificial　substances。　Of　diversified　habits　innumerable　instances　could　be　given：　I　have　often　watched　a　tyrant　flycatcher　（Saurophagus　sulphuratus）　in　South　America；　hovering　over　one　spot　and　then　proceeding　to　another；　like　a　kestrel；　and　at　other　times　standing　stationary　on　the　margin　of　water；　and　then　dashing　like　a　kingfisher　at　a　fish。　In　our　own　country　the　larger　titmouse　（Parus　major）　may　be　seen　climbing　branches；　almost　like　a　creeper；　it　often；　like　a　shrike；　kills　small　birds　by　blows　on　the　head；　and　I　have　many　times　seen　and　heard　it　hammering　the　seeds　of　the　yew　on　a　branch；　and　thus　breaking　them　like　a　nuthatch。　In　North　America　the　black　bear　was　seen　by　Hearne　swimming　for　hours　with　widely　open　mouth；　thus　catching；　like　a　whale；　insects　in　the　water。　Even　in　so　extreme　a　case　as　this；　if　the　supply　of　insects　were　constant；　and　if　better　adapted　competitors　did　not　already　exist　in　the　country；　I　can　see　no　difficulty　in　a　race　of　bears　being　rendered；　by　natural　selection；　more　and　more　aquatic　in　their　structure　and　habits；　with　larger　and　larger　mouths；　till　a　creature　was　produced　as　monstrous　as　a　whale。　
As　we　sometimes　see　individuals　of　a　species　following　habits　widely　different　from　those　both　of　their　own　species　and　of　the　other　species　of　the　same　genus；　we　might　expect；　on　my　theory；　that　such　individuals　would　occasionally　have　given　rise　to　new　species；　having　anomalous　habits；　and　with　their　structure　either　slightly　or　considerably　modified　from　that　of　their　proper　type。　And　such　instances　do　occur　in　nature。　Can　a　more　striking　instance　of　adaptation　be　given　than　that　of　a　woodpecker　for　climbing　trees　and　for　seizing　insects　in　the　chinks　of　the　bark？　Yet　in　North　America　there　are　woodpeckers　which　feed　largely　on　fruit；　and　others　with　elongated　wings　which　chase　insects　on　the　wing；　and　on　the　plains　of　La　Plata；　where　not　a　tree　grows；　there　is　a　woodpecker；　which　in　every　essential　part　of　its　organisation；　even　in　its　colouring；　in　the　harsh　tone　of　its　voice；　and　undulatory　flight；　told　me　plainly　of　its　close　blood…relationship　to　our　common　species；　yet　it　is　a　woodpecker　which　never　climbs　a　tree！　
Petrels　are　the　most　a？rial　and　oceanic　of　birds；　yet　in　the　quiet　Sounds　of　Tierra　del　Fuego；　the　Puffinuria　berardi；　in　its　general　habits；　in　its　astonishing　power　of　diving；　its　manner　of　swimming；　and　of　flying　when　unwillingly　it　takes　flight；　would　be　mistaken　by　any　one　for　an　auk　or　grebe；　nevertheless；　it　is　essentially　a　petrel；　but　with　many　parts　of　its　organisation　profoundly　modified。　On　the　other　hand；　the　acutest　observer　by　examining　the　dead　body　of　the　water…ouzel　would　never　have　suspected　its　sub…aquatic　habits；　yet　this　anomalous　member　of　the　strictly　terrestrial　thrush　family　wholly　subsists　by　diving；　grasping　the　stones　with　its　feet　and　using　its　wings　under　water。　
He　who　believes　that　each　being　has　been　created　as　we　now　see　it；　must　occasionally　have　felt　surprise　when　he　has　met　with　an　animal　having　habits　and　structure　not　at　all　in　agreement。　What　can　be　plainer　than　that　the　webbed　feet　of　ducks　and　geese　are　formed　for　swimming；　yet　there　are　upland　geese　with　webbed　feet　which　rarely　or　never　go　near　the　water；　and　no　one　except　Audubon　has　seen　the　frigate…bird；　which　has　all　its　four　toes　webbed；　alight　on　the　surface　of　the　sea。　On　the　other　hand；　grebes　and　coots　are　eminently　aquatic；　although　their　toes　are　only　bordered　by　membrane。　What　seems　plainer　than　that　the　long　toes　of　grallatores　are　formed　for　walking　over　swamps　and　floating　plants；　yet　the　water…hen　is　nearly　as　aquatic　as　the　coot；　and　the　landrail　nearly　as　terrestrial　as　the　quail　or　partridge。　In　such　cases；　and　many　others　could　be　given；　habits　have　changed　without　a　corresponding　change　of　structure。　The　webbed　feet　of　the　upland　goose　may　be　said　to　have　become　rudimentary　in　function；　though　not　in　structure。　In　the　frigate…bird；　the　deeply…scooped　membrane　between　the　toes　shows　that　structure　has　begun　to　change。　
He　who　believes　in　separate　and　innumerable　acts　of　creation　will　say；　that　in　these　cases　it　has　pleased　the　Creator　to　cause　a　being　of　one　type　to　take　the　place　of　one　of　another　type；　but　this　seems　to　me　only　restating　the　fact　in　dignified　language。　He　who　believes　in　the　struggle　for　existence　and　in　the　principle　of　natural　selection；　will　acknowledge　that　every　organic　being　is　constantly　endeavouring　to　increase　in　numbers；　and　that　if　any　one　being　vary　ever　so　little；　either　in　habits　or　structure；　and　thus　gain　an　advantage　over　some　other　inhabitant　of　the　country；　it　will　seize　on　the　place　of　that　inhabitant；　however　different　it　may　be　from　its　own　place。　Hence　it　will　cause　him　no　surprise　that　there　should　be　geese　and　frigate…birds　with　webbed　feet；　either　living　on　the　dry　land　or　most　rarely　alighting　on　the　water；　that　there　should　be　long…toed　corncrakes　living　in　meadows　instead　of　in　swamps；　that　there　should　be　woodpeckers　where　not　a　tree　grows；　that　there　should　be　diving　thrushes；　and　petrels　with　the　habits　of　auks。　
Organs　of　extreme　perfection　and　complication。　To　suppose　that　the　eye；　with　all　its　inimitable　contrivances　for　adjusting　the　focus　to　different　distances；　for　admitting　different　amounts　of　light；　and　for　the　correction　of　spherical　and　chromatic　aberration；　could　have　been　formed　by　natural　selection；　seems；　I　freely　confess；　absurd　in　the　highest　possible　degree。　Yet　reason　tells　me；　that　if　numerous　gradations　from　a　perfect　and　complex　eye　to　one　very　imperfect　and　simple；　each　grade　being　useful　to　its　possessor；　can　be　shown　to　exist；　if　further；　the　eye　does　vary　ever　so　slightly；　and　the　variations　be　inherited；　which　is　certainly　the　case；　and　if　any　variation　or　modification　in　the　organ　be　ever　useful　to　an　animal　under　changing　conditions　of　life；　then　the　difficulty　of　believing　that　a　perfect　and　complex　eye　could　be　formed