a history of science-2-第4部分

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ver；　vastly　increased　the　possibilities　of　chemical　experiment　by　the　discovery　of　sulphuric；　nitric；　and　nitromuriatic　acids。　He　made　use　also　of　the　processes　of　sublimation　and　filtration；　and　his　works　describe　the　water　bath　and　the　chemical　oven。　Among　the　important　chemicals　which　he　first　differentiated　is　oxide　of　mercury；　and　his　studies　of　sulphur　in　its　various　compounds　have　peculiar　interest。　In　particular　is　this　true　of　his　observation　that；　tinder　certain　conditions　of　oxidation；　the　weight　of　a　metal　was　lessened。　From　the　record　of　these　studies　in　the　fields　of　astronomy；　physics；　and　chemistry；　we　turn　to　a　somewhat　extended　survey　of　the　Arabian　advances　in　the　field　of　medicine。

ARABIAN　MEDICINE　The　influence　of　Arabian　physicians　rested　chiefly　upon　their　use　of　drugs　rather　than　upon　anatomical　knowledge。　Like　the　mediaeval　Christians；　they　looked　with　horror　on　dissection　of　the　human　body；　yet　there　were　always　among　them　investigators　who　turned　constantly　to　nature　herself　for　hidden　truths；　and　were　ready　to　uphold　the　superiority　of　actual　observation　to　mere　reading。　Thus　the　physician　Abd　el…Letif；　while　in　Egypt；　made　careful　studies　of　a　mound　of　bones　containing　more　than　twenty　thousand　skeletons。　While　examining　these　bones　he　discovered　that　the　lower　jaw　consists　of　a　single　bone；　not　of　two；　as　had　been　taught　by　Galen。　He　also　discovered　several　other　important　mistakes　in　Galenic　anatomy；　and　was　so　impressed　with　his　discoveries　that　he　contemplated　writing　a　work　on　anatomy　which　should　correct　the　great　classical　authority's　mistakes。　It　was　the　Arabs　who　invented　the　apothecary；　and　their　pharmacopoeia；　issued　from　the　hospital　at　Gondisapor；　and　elaborated　from　time　to　time；　formed　the　basis　for　Western　pharmacopoeias。　Just　how　many　drugs　originated　with　them；　and　how　many　were　borrowed　from　the　Hindoos；　Jews；　Syrians；　and　Persians；　cannot　be　determined。　It　is　certain；　however；　that　through　them　various　new　and　useful　drugs；　such　as　senna；　aconite；　rhubarb；　camphor；　and　mercury；　were　handed　down　through　the　Middle　Ages；　and　that　they　are　responsible　for　the　introduction　of　alcohol　in　the　field　of　therapeutics。　In　mediaeval　Europe；　Arabian　science　came　to　be　regarded　with　superstitious　awe；　and　the　works　of　certain　Arabian　physicians　were　exalted　to　a　position　above　all　the　ancient　writers。　In　modern　times；　however；　there　has　been　a　reaction　and　a　tendency　to　depreciation　of　their　work。　By　some　they　are　held　to　be　mere　copyists　or　translators　of　Greek　books；　and　in　no　sense　original　investigators　in　medicine。　Yet　there　can　be　little　doubt　that　while　the　Arabians　did　copy　and　translate　freely；　they　also　originated　and　added　considerably　to　medical　knowledge。　It　is　certain　that　in　the　time　when　Christian　monarchs　in　western　Europe　were　paying　little　attention　to　science　or　education；　the　caliphs　and　vizirs　were　encouraging　physicians　and　philosophers；　building　schools；　and　erecting　libraries　and　hospitals。　They　made　at　least　a　creditable　effort　to　uphold　and　advance　upon　the　scientific　standards　of　an　earlier　age。　The　first　distinguished　Arabian　physician　was　Harets　ben　Kaladah；　who　received　his　education　in　the　Nestonian　school　at　Gondisapor；　about　the　beginning　of　the　seventh　century。　Notwithstanding　the　fact　that　Harets　was　a　Christian；　he　was　chosen　by　Mohammed　as　his　chief　medical　adviser；　and　recommended　as　such　to　his　successor；　the　Caliph　Abu　Bekr。　Thus；　at　the　very　outset；　the　science　of　medicine　was　divorced　from　religion　among　the　Arabians；　for　if　the　prophet　himself　could　employ　the　services　of　an　unbeliever；　surely　others　might　follow　his　example。　And　that　this　example　was　followed　is　shown　in　the　fact　that　many　Christian　physicians　were　raised　to　honorable　positions　by　succeeding　generations　of　Arabian　monarchs。　This　broad…minded　view　of　medicine　taken　by　the　Arabs　undoubtedly　assisted　as　much　as　any　one　single　factor　in　upbuilding　the　science；　just　as　the　narrow　and　superstitious　view　taken　by　Western　nations　helped　to　destroy　it。　The　education　of　the　Arabians　made　it　natural　for　them　to　associate　medicine　with　the　natural　sciences；　rather　than　with　religion。　An　Arabian　savant　was　supposed　to　be　equally　well　educated　in　philosophy；　jurisprudence；　theology；　mathematics；　and　medicine；　and　to　practise　law；　theology；　and　medicine　with　equal　skill　upon　occasion。　It　is　easy　to　understand；　therefore；　why　these　religious　fanatics　were　willing　to　employ　unbelieving　physicians；　and　their　physicians　themselves　to　turn　to　the　scientific　works　of　Hippocrates　and　Galen　for　medical　instruction；　rather　than　to　religious　works。　Even　Mohammed　himself　professed　some　knowledge　of　medicine；　and　often　relied　upon　this　knowledge　in　treating　ailments　rather　than　upon　prayers　or　incantations。　He　is　said；　for　example；　to　have　recommended　and　applied　the　cautery　in　the　case　of　a　friend　who；　when　suffering　from　angina；　had　sought　his　aid。　The　list　of　eminent　Arabian　physicians　is　too　long　to　be　given　here；　but　some　of　them　are　of　such　importance　in　their　influence　upon　later　medicine　that　they　cannot　be　entirely　ignored。　One　of　the　first　of　these　was　Honain　ben　Isaac　（809…873　A。D。）；　a　Christian　Arab　of　Bagdad。　He　made　translations　of　the　works　of　Hippocrates；　and　practised　the　art　along　the　lines　indicated　by　his　teachings　and　those　of　Galen。　He　is　considered　the　greatest　translator　of　the　ninth　century　and　one　of　the　greatest　philosophers　of　that　period。　Another　great　Arabian　physician；　whose　work　was　just　beginning　as　Honain's　was　drawing　to　a　close；　was　Rhazes　（850…923　A。D。）；　who　during　his　life　was　no　less　noted　as　a　philosopher　and　musician　than　as　a　physician。　He　continued　the　work　of　Honain；　and　advanced　therapeutics　by　introducing　more　extensive　use　of　chemical　remedies；　such　as　mercurial　ointments；　sulphuric　acid；　and　aqua　vitae。　He　is　also　credited　with　being　the　first　physician　to　describe　small…pox　and　measles　accurately。　While　Rhazes　was　still　alive　another　Arabian；　Haly　Abbas　（died　about　994）；　was　writing　his　famous　encyclopaedia　of　medicine；　called　The　Royal　Book。　But　the　names　of　all　these　great　physicians　have　been　considerably　obscured　by　the　reputation　of　Avicenna　（980…1037）；　the　Arabian　〃Prince　of　Physicians；〃　the　greatest　name　in　Arabic　medicine；　and　one　of　the　most　remarkable　men　in　history。　Leclerc　says　that　〃he　was　perhaps　never　surpassed　by　any　man　in　brilliancy　of　intellect　and　indefatigable　activity。〃　His　career　was　a　most　varied　one。　He　was　at　all　times　a　boisterous　reveller；　but　whether　flaunting　gayly　among　the　guests　of　an　emir　or　biding　in　some　obscure　apothecary　cellar；　his　work　of　philosophical　writing　was　carried　on　steadily。　When　a　friendly　emir　was　in　power；　he　taught　and　wrote　and　caroused　at　court；　but　between　times；　when　some　unfriendly　ruler　was　supreme；　he　was　hiding　away　obscurely；　still　pouring　out　his　great　mass　of　manuscripts。　In　this　way　his　entire　life　was　spent。　By　his　extensive　writings　he　revived　and　kept　alive　the　best　of　the　teachings　of　the　Greek　physicians；　adding　to　them　such　observations　as　he　had　made　in　anatomy；　physiology；　and　materia　medica。　Among　his　discoveries　is　that　of　the　contagiousness　of　pulmonary　tuberculosis。　His　works　for　several　centuries　continued　to　be　looked　upon　as　the　highest　standard　by　physicians；　and　he　should　undoubtedly　be　credited　with　having　at　least　retarded　the　decline　of　mediaeval　medicine。　But　it　was　not　the　Eastern　Arabs　alone　who　were　active　in　the　field　of　medicine。　Cordova；　the　capital　of　the　western　caliphate；　became　also　a　great　centre　of　learning　and　produced　several　great　physicians。　One　of　these；　Albucasis　（died　in　1013　A。D。）；　is　credited　with　having　published　the　first　illustrated　work　on　surgery；　this　book　being　remarkable　in　still　another　way；　in　that　it　was　also　the　first　book；　since　classical　times；　written　from　the　practical　experience　of　the　physician；　and　not　a　mere　compilation　of　ancient　authors。　A　century　after　Albucasis　came　the　great　physician　Avenzoar　（1113…1196）；　with　whom　he　divides　about　equally　the　medical　honors　of　the　western　caliphate。　Among　Avenzoar's　discoveries　was　that　of　the　cause　of　〃itch〃a　little　parasite；　〃so　small　that　he　is　hardly　visible。〃　The　discovery　of　the　cause　of　this　common　disease　seems　of　minor　importance　now；　but　it　is　of　interest　in　medical　history　because；　had　Avenzoar's　discovery　been　remembered　a　hundred　years　ago；　〃itch　struck　in〃　could　hardly　have　been　considered　the　cause　of　three…fourths　of　all　diseases；　as　it　was　by　the　famous　Hahnemann。　The　illustrious　pupil　of　Avenzoar；　Averrhoes；　who　died　in　1198　A。D。；　was　the　last　of　the　great　Arabian　physicians　who；　by　rational　conception　of　medicine；　attempted　to　stem　the　flood　of　superstition　that　was　overwhelming　medicine。　For　a　time　he　succeeded；　but　at　last　the　Moslem　theologians　prevailed；　and　he　was　degraded　and　banished　to　a　town　inhabited　only　by　the　despised　Jews。

ARABIAN　HOSPITALS　To　early　Christians　belong　the　credit　of　having　established　the　first　charitable　institutions　for　caring　for　the　sick；　but　their　efforts　were　soon　eclipsed　by　both　Eastern　and　Western　Mohammedans。　As　early　as　the　eighth　century　the　Arabs　had　begun　building　hospitals；　but　the　flourishing　time　of　hospital　building　seems　to　have　begun　early　in　the　tenth　century。　Lady　Seidel；　in　918　A。D。；　opened　a　hospital　at　Bagdad；　endowed　with　an　amount　corresponding　to　about　three　hundred　pounds　sterling　a　month。　Other　similar　hospitals　were　erected　in　the　years　immediately　following；　and　in　977　the　Emir　Adad…adaula　established　an　enormous　institution　with　a　staff　of　twenty…four　medical　officers。　The　great　physician　Rhazes　is　said　to　have　selected　the　site　for　one　of　these　hospitals　by　hanging　pieces　of　meat　in　various　places　about　the　city；　selecting　the　site　near　the　place　at　which　putrefaction　was　slowest　in　making　its　appearance。　By　the　middle　of　the　twelfth　century　there　were　something　like　sixty　medical　institutions　in　Bagdad　alone；　and　these　institutions　were　free　to　all　patients　and　supported　by　official　charity。　The　Emir　Nureddin；　about　the　year　1160；　founded　a　great　hospital　at　Damascus；　as　a　thank…offering　for　his　victories　over　the　Crusaders。　This　great　institution　completely　overshadowed　all　the　earlier　Moslem　hospitals　in　size　and　in　the