a history of science-2-第5部分

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。　This　great　institution　completely　overshadowed　all　the　earlier　Moslem　hospitals　in　size　and　in　the　completeness　of　its　equipment。　It　was　furnished　with　facilities　for　teaching；　and　was　conducted　for　several　centuries　in　a　lavish　manner；　regardless　of　expense。　But　little　over　a　century　after　its　foundation　the　fame　of　its　methods　of　treatment　led　to　the　establishment　of　a　larger　and　still　more　luxurious　institutionthe　Mansuri　hospital　at　Cairo。　It　seems　that　a　certain　sultan；　having　been　cured　by　medicines　from　the　Damascene　hospital；　determined　to　build　one　of　his　own　at　Cairo　which　should　eclipse　even　the　great　Damascene　institution。　In　a　single　year　（1283…1284）　this　hospital　was　begun　and　completed。　No　efforts　were　spared　in　hurrying　on　the　good　work；　and　no　one　was　exempt　from　performing　labor　on　the　building　if　he　chanced　to　pass　one　of　the　adjoining　streets。　It　was　the　order　of　the　sultan　that　any　person　passing　near　could　be　impressed　into　the　work；　and　this　order　was　carried　out　to　the　letter；　noblemen　and　beggars　alike　being　forced　to　lend　a　hand。　Very　naturally；　the　adjacent　thoroughfares　became　unpopular　and　practically　deserted；　but　still　the　holy　work　progressed　rapidly　and　was　shortly　completed。　This　immense　structure　is　said　to　have　contained　four　courts；　each　having　a　fountain　in　the　centre；　lecture…halls；　wards　for　isolating　certain　diseases；　and　a　department　that　corresponded　to　the　modern　hospital's　〃out…patient〃　department。　The　yearly　endowment　amounted　to　something　like　the　equivalent　of　one　hundred　and　twenty…five　thousand　dollars。　A　novel　feature　was　a　hall　where　musicians　played　day　and　night；　and　another　where　story…tellers　were　employed；　so　that　persons　troubled　with　insomnia　were　amused　and　melancholiacs　cheered。　Those　of　a　religious　turn　of　mind　could　listen　to　readings　of　the　Koran；　conducted　continuously　by　a　staff　of　some　fifty　chaplains。　Each　patient　on　leaving　the　hospital　received　some　gold　pieces；　that　he　need　not　be　obliged　to　attempt　hard　labor　at　once。　In　considering　the　astonishing　tales　of　these　sumptuous　Arabian　institutions；　it　should　be　borne　in　mind　that　our　accounts　of　them　are；　for　the　most　part；　from　Mohammedan　sources。　Nevertheless；　there　can　be　little　question　that　they　were　enormous　institutions；　far　surpassing　any　similar　institutions　in　western　Europe。　The　so…called　hospitals　in　the　West　were；　at　this　time；　branches　of　monasteries　under　supervision　of　the　monks；　and　did　not　compare　favorably　with　the　Arabian　hospitals。　But　while　the　medical　science　of　the　Mohammedans　greatly　overshadowed　that　of　the　Christians　during　this　period；　it　did　not　completely　obliterate　it。　About　the　year　1000　A。D。　came　into　prominence　the　Christian　medical　school　at　Salerno；　situated　on　the　Italian　coast；　some　thirty　miles　southeast　of　Naples。　Just　how　long　this　school　had　been　in　existence；　or　by　whom　it　was　founded；　cannot　be　determined；　but　its　period　of　greatest　influence　was　the　eleventh；　twelfth；　and　thirteenth　centuries。　The　members　of　this　school　gradually　adopted　Arabic　medicine；　making　use　of　many　drugs　from　the　Arabic　pharmacopoeia；　and　this　formed　one　of　the　stepping…stones　to　the　introduction　of　Arabian　medicine　all　through　western　Europe。　It　was　not　the　adoption　of　Arabian　medicines；　however；　that　has　made　the　school　at　Salerno　famous　both　in　rhyme　and　prose；　but　rather　the　fact　that　women　there　practised　the　healing　art。　Greatest　among　them　was　Trotula；　who　lived　in　the　eleventh　century；　and　whose　learning　is　reputed　to　have　equalled　that　of　the　greatest　physicians　of　the　day。　She　is　accredited　with　a　work　on　Diseases　of　Women；　still　extant；　and　many　of　her　writings　on　general　medical　subjects　were　quoted　through　two　succeeding　centuries。　If　we　may　judge　from　these　writings；　she　seemed　to　have　had　many　excellent　ideas　as　to　the　proper　methods　of　treating　diseases；　but　it　is　difficult　to　determine　just　which　of　the　writings　credited　to　her　are　in　reality　hers。　Indeed；　the　uncertainty　is　even　greater　than　this　implies；　for；　according　to　some　writers；　〃Trotula〃　is　merely　the　title　of　a　book。　Such　an　authority　as　Malgaigne；　however；　believed　that　such　a　woman　existed；　and　that　the　works　accredited　to　her　are　authentic。　The　truth　of　the　matter　may　perhaps　never　be　fully　established；　but　this　at　least　is　certainthe　tradition　in　regard　to　Trotula　could　never　have　arisen　had　not　women　held　a　far　different　position　among　the　Arabians　of　this　period　from　that　accorded　them　in　contemporary　Christendom。

III。　MEDIAEVAL　SCIENCE　IN　THE　WEST　We　have　previously　referred　to　the　influence　of　the　Byzantine　civilization　in　transmitting　the　learning　of　antiquity　across　the　abysm　of　the　dark　age。　It　must　be　admitted；　however；　that　the　importance　of　that　civilization　did　not　extend　much　beyond　the　task　of　the　common　carrier。　There　were　no　great　creative　scientists　in　the　later　Roman　empire　of　the　East　any　more　than　in　the　corresponding　empire　of　the　West。　There　was；　however；　one　field　in　which　the　Byzantine　made　respectable　progress　and　regarding　which　their　efforts　require　a　few　words　of　special　comment。　This　was　the　field　of　medicine。　The　Byzantines　of　this　time　could　boast　of　two　great　medical　men；　Aetius　of　Amida　（about　502…575　A。D。）　and　Paul　of　Aegina　（about　620…690）。　The　works　of　Aetius　were　of　value　largely　because　they　recorded　the　teachings　of　many　of　his　eminent　predecessors；　but　he　was　not　entirely　lacking　in　originality；　and　was　perhaps　the　first　physician　to　mention　diphtheria；　with　an　allusion　to　some　observations　of　the　paralysis　of　the　palate　which　sometimes　follows　this　disease。　Paul　of　Aegina；　who　came　from　the　Alexandrian　school　about　a　century　later；　was　one　of　those　remarkable　men　whose　ideas　are　centuries　ahead　of　their　time。　This　was　particularly　true　of　Paul　in　regard　to　surgery；　and　his　attitude　towards　the　supernatural　in　the　causation　and　treatment　of　diseases。　He　was　essentially　a　surgeon；　being　particularly　familiar　with　military　surgery；　and　some　of　his　descriptions　of　complicated　and　difficult　operations　have　been　little　improved　upon　even　in　modern　times。　In　his　books　he　describes　such　operations　as　the　removal　of　foreign　bodies　from　the　nose；　ear；　and　esophagus；　and　he　recognizes　foreign　growths　such　as　polypi　in　the　air…passages；　and　gives　the　method　of　their　removal。　Such　operations　as　tracheotomy；　tonsellotomy；　bronchotomy；　staphylotomy；　etc。；　were　performed　by　him；　and　he　even　advocated　and　described　puncture　of　the　abdominal　cavity；　giving　careful　directions　as　to　the　location　in　which　such　punctures　should　be　made。　He　advocated　amputation　of　the　breast　for　the　cure　of　cancer；　and　described　extirpation　of　the　uterus。　Just　how　successful　this　last　operation　may　have　been　as　performed　by　him　does　not　appear；　but　he　would　hardly　have　recommended　it　if　it　had　not　been　sometimes；　at　least；　successful。　That　he　mentions　it　at　all；　however；　is　significant；　as　this　difficult　operation　is　considered　one　of　the　great　triumphs　of　modern　surgery。　But　Paul　of　Aegina　is　a　striking　exception　to　the　rule　among　Byzantine　surgeons；　and　as　he　was　their　greatest；　so　he　was　also　their　last　important　surgeon。　The　energies　of　all　Byzantium　were　so　expended　in　religious　controversies　that　medicine；　like　the　other　sciences；　was　soon　relegated　to　a　place　among　the　other　superstitions；　and　the　influence　of　the　Byzantine　school　was　presently　replaced　by　that　of　the　conquering　Arabians。

THIRTEENTH…CENTURY　MEDICINE　The　thirteenth　century　marks　the　beginning　of　a　gradual　change　in　medicine；　and　a　tendency　to　leave　the　time…worn　rut　of　superstitious　dogmas　that　so　long　retarded　the　progress　of　science。　It　is　thought　that　the　great　epidemics　which　raged　during　the　Middle　Ages　acted　powerfully　in　diverting　the　medical　thought　of　the　times　into　new　and　entirely　different　channels。　It　will　be　remembered　that　the　teachings　of　Galen　were　handed　through　mediaeval　times　as　the　highest　and　best　authority　on　the　subject　of　all　diseases。　When；　however；　the　great　epidemics　made　their　appearance；　the　medical　men　appealed　to　the　works　of　Galen　in　vain　for　enlightenment；　as　these　works；　having　been　written　several　centuries　before　the　time　of　the　plagues；　naturally　contained　no　information　concerning　them。　It　was　evident；　therefore；　that　on　this　subject；　at　least；　Galen　was　not　infallible；　and　it　would　naturally　follow　that；　one　fallible　point　having　been　revealed；　others　would　be　sought　for。　In　other　words；　scepticism　in　regard　to　accepted　methods　would　be　aroused；　and　would　lead　naturally；　as　such　scepticism　usually　does；　to　progress。　The　devastating　effects　of　these　plagues；　despite　prayers　and　incantations；　would　arouse　doubt　in　the　minds　of　many　as　to　the　efficacy　of　superstitious　rites　and　ceremonies　in　curing　diseases。　They　had　seen　thousands　and　tens　of　thousands　of　their　fellow…beings　swept　away　by　these　awful　scourges。　They　had　seen　the　ravages　of　these　epidemics　continue　for　months　or　even　years；　notwithstanding　the　fact　that　multitudes　of　God…fearing　people　prayed　hourly　that　such　ravages　might　be　checked。　And　they　must　have　observed　also　that　when　even　very　simple　rules　of　cleanliness　and　hygiene　were　followed　there　was　a　diminution　in　the　ravages　of　the　plague；　even　without　the　aid　of　incantations。　Such　observations　as　these　would　have　a　tendency　to　awaken　a　suspicion　in　the　minds　of　many　of　the　physicians　that　disease　was　not　a　manifestation　of　the　supernatural；　but　a　natural　phenomenon；　to　be　treated　by　natural　methods。　But；　be　the　causes　what　they　may；　it　is　a　fact　that　the　thirteenth　century　marks　a　turning…point；　or　the　beginning　of　an　attitude　of　mind　which　resulted　in　bringing　medicine　to　a　much　more　rational　position。　Among　the　thirteenth…century　physicians；　two　men　are　deserving　of　special　mention。　These　are　Arnald　of　Villanova　（1235…1312）　and　Peter　of　Abano　（1250…1315）。　Both　these　men　suffered　persecution　for　expressing　their　belief　in　natural；　as　against　the　supernatural；　causes　of　disease；　and　at　one　time　Arnald　was　obliged　to　flee　from　Barcelona　for　declaring　that　the　〃bulls〃　of　popes　were　human　works；　and　that　〃acts　of　charity　were　dearer　to　God　than　hecatombs。〃　He　was　also　accused　of　alchemy。　Fleeing　from　persecution；　he　finally　perished　by　shipwreck。　Arnald　was　the　first　great　representative　of　th