the.world.is.flat-第11部分

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


the　convergence　often　major　political　events；　innovations；　and　companies。　None　of　
us　has　rested　since；　or　maybe　ever　will　again。　This　chapter　is　about　the　forces　that　
flattened　the　world　and　the　multiple　new　forms　and　tools　for　collaboration　that　this　
flattening　has　created。　
Flattener　#1　
11/9/89　When　the　Walls　Came　Down　and　the　Windows　Went　Up　
The　first　time　I　saw　the　Berlin　Wall；　it　already　had　a　hole　in　it。　It　was　December　
1990；　and　I　was　traveling　to　Berlin　with　the　reporters　covering　Secretary　of　State　
James　A。　Baker　III。　The　Berlin　Wall　had　been　breached　a　year　earlier；　on　November　
9；　1989。　Yes；　in　a　wonderful　kabbalistic　accident　of　dates；　the　Berlin　Wall　fell　on　
11/9。　The　wall；　even　in　its　punctured　and　broken　state；　was　still　an　ugly　scar　across　
Berlin。　Secretary　Baker　was　making　his　first　visit　to　see　this　crumbled　monument　to　
Soviet　communism。　I　was　standing　next　to　him　with　a　small　group　of　reporters。　〃It　
was　a　foggy；　overcast　day；〃　Baker　recalled　in　
49　
his　memoir；　The　Politics　of　Diplomacy；　〃and　in　my　raincoat；　I　felt　like　a　character　
in　a　John　leCarre　novel。　But　as　I　peered　through　a　crack　in　the　Wall　＇near　the　Reichstag＇　
and　saw　the　high…resolution　drabness　that　characterizes　East　Berlin；　I　realized　that　
the　ordinary　men　and　women　of　East　Germany；　peacefully　and　persistently；　had　taken　
matters　into　their　own　hands。　This　was　their　revolution。〃　After　Baker　finished　looking　
through　the　wall　and　moved　along；　we　reporters　took　turns　peering　through　the　same　
jagged　concrete　hole。　I　brought　a　couple　of　chunks　of　the　wall　home　for　my　daughters。　
I　remember　thinking　how　unnatural　it　looked…indeed；　what　a　bizarre　thing　it　was；　this　
cement　wall　snaking　across　a　modern　city　for　the　sole　purpose　of　preventing　the　people　
on　the　other　side　from　enjoying；　even　glimpsing；　freedom。　
The　fall　of　the　Berlin　Wall　on　11/9/89　unleashed　forces　that　ultimately　liberated　
all　the　captive　peoples　of　the　Soviet　Empire。　But　it　actually　did　so　much　more。　It　
tipped　the　balance　of　power　across　the　world　toward　those　advocating　democratic；　
consensual；　free…market…oriented　governance；　and　away　from　those　advocating　
authoritarian　rule　with　centrally　planned　economies。　The　Cold　War　had　been　a　struggle　
between　two　economic　systems…capitalism　and　communism…and　with　the　fall　of　the　wall；　
there　was　only　one　system　left　and　everyone　had　to　orient　himself　or　herself　to　it　
one　way　or　another。　Henceforth；　more　and　more　economies　would　be　governed　from　the　
ground　up；　by　the　interests；　demands；　and　aspirations　of　the　people；　rather　than　from　


the　top　down；　by　the　interests　of　some　narrow　ruling　clique。　Within　two　years；　there　
was　no　Soviet　Empire　to　hide　behind　anymore　or　to　prop　up　autocratic　regimes　in　Asia；　
the　Middle　East；　Africa；　or　Latin　America。　If　you　were　not　a　democracy　or　a　
democratizing　society；　if　you　continued　to　hold　fast　to　highly　regulated　or　centrally　
planned　economics；　you　were　seen　as　being　on　the　wrong　side　of　history。　
For　some；　particularly　among　the　older　generations；　this　was　an　unwelcome　
transformation。　Communism　was　a　great　system　for　making　people　equally　poor。　In　fact；　
there　was　no　better　system　in　the　world　for　that　than　communism。　Capitalism　madepeople　
unequally　rich；　and　for　some　who　were　used　to　the　plodding；　limited；　but　secure　
Socialist　
50　
lifestyle…where　a　job；　a　house；　an　education；　and　a　pension　were　all　guaranteed；　even　
if　they　were　meager…the　fall　of　the　Berlin　Wall　was　deeply　unsettling。　But　for　many　
others；　it　was　a　get…out…of…jail…free　card。　That　is　why　the　fall　of　the　Berlin　Wall　
was　felt　in　so　many　more　places　than　just　Berlin；　and　why　its　fall　was　such　a　
world…flattening　event。　
Indeed；　to　appreciate　the　far…reaching　flattening　effects　of　the　fall　of　the　Berlin　
Wall；　it's　always　best　to　talk　to　non…Germans　or　non…Russians。　Tarun　Das　was　heading　
the　Confederation　of　Indian　Industry　when　the　wall　fell　in　Berlin；　and　he　saw　its　
ripple　effect　felt　all　the　way　to　India。　〃We　had　this　huge　mass　of　regulation　and　
controls　and　bureaucracy；〃　he　recalled。　〃Nehru　had　come　to　power　＇after　the　end　of　
British　colonial　rule＇　and　had　a　huge　country　to　manage；　and　no　experience　of　running　
a　country。　The　U。S。　was　busy　with　Europe　and　Japan　and　the　Marshall　Plan。　So　Nehru　
looked　north；　across　the　Himalayas；　and　sent　his　team　of　economists　to　Moscow。　They　
came　back　and　said　that　this　country　＇the　Soviet　Union＇　was　amazing。　They　allocate　
resources；　they　give　licenses；　there　is　a　planning　commission　that　decides　everything；　
and　the　country　moves。　So　we　took　that　model　and　forgot　that　we　had　a　private　sector　。　。　。　
That　private　sector　got　put　under　this　wall　of　regulation。　By　1991；　the　private　sector　
was　there；　but　under　wraps；　and　there　was　mistrust　about　business。　They　made　profits！　
The　entire　infrastructure　from　1947　to　1991　was　government…owned　。　。　。　＇The　burden　
of　state　ownership＇　almost　bankrupted　the　country。　We　were　not　able　to　pay　our　debts。　
As　a　people；　we　did　not　have　self…confidence。　Sure；　we　might　have　won　a　couple　of　
wars　with　Pakistan；　but　that　did　not　give　the　nation　confidence。〃　
In　1991；　with　India　running　out　of　hard　currency；　Manmohan　Singh；　the　finance　minister　
at　that　time　（and　now　the　prime　minister）；　decided　that　India　had　to　open　its　economy。　
〃Our　Berlin　Wall　fell；〃　said　Das；　〃and　it　was　like　unleashing　a　caged　tiger。　Trade　
controls　were　abolished。　We　were　always　at　3　percent　growth；　the　so…called　Hindu　rate　
of　growth…slow；　cautious；　and　conservative。　To　make　＇better　returns＇；　you　had　to　go　
to　America。　Well；　three　years　later　＇after　the　1991　reforms＇　we　were　at　7　percent　
rate　of　growth。　To　hell　with　poverty！　Now　to　make　it　you　could　stay　in　India　and　become　
one　of　Forbes's　richest　people　in　the　world　。。。　All　the　years　of　socialism　and　controls　
had　taken　us　downhill　to　
51　
the　point　where　we　had　only　　1　billion　in　foreign　currency。　Today　we　have　　118　


billion　。　。　。　We　went　from　quiet　self…confidence　to　outrageous　ambition　in　a　decade。〃　
The　fall　of　the　Berlin　Wall　didn't　just　help　flatten　the　alternatives　to　free…market　
capitalism　and　unlock　enormous　pent…up　energies　for　hundreds　of　millions　of　people　
in　places　like　India；　Brazil；　China；　and　the　former　Soviet　Empire。　It　also　allowed　
us　to　think　about　the　world　differently…to　see　it　as　more　of　a　seamless　whole。　Because　
the　Berlin　Wall　was　not　only　blocking　our　way；　it　was　blocking　our　sight…our　ability　
to　think　about　the　world　as　a　single　market；　a　single　ecosystem；　and　a　single　community。　
Before　1989；　you　could　have　an　Eastern　policy　or　a　Western　policy；　but　it　was　hard　
to　think　about　having　a　〃global〃　policy。　Amartya　Sen；　the　Nobel　Prize…winning　Indian　
economist　now　teaching　at　Harvard；　once　remarked　to　me　that　〃the　Berlin　Wall　was　not　
only　a　symbol　of　keeping　people　inside　East　Germany…it　was　a　way　of　preventing　a　kind　
of　global　view　of　our　future。　We　could　not　think　globally　about　the　world　when　the　
Berlin　Wall　was　there。　We　could　not　think　about　the　world　as　a　whole。〃　There　is　a　
lovely　story　in　Sanskrit；　Sen　added；　about　a　frog　that　is　born　in　a　well　and　stays　
in　the　well　and　lives　its　entire　life　in　the　well。　〃It　has　a　worldview　that　consists　
of　the　well；〃　he　said。　〃That　was　what　the　world　was　like　for　many　people　on　the　planet　
before　the　fall　of　the　wall。　When　it　fell；　it　was　like　the　frog　in　the　well　was　suddenly　
able　to　communicate　with　frogs　in　all　the　other　wells。。。　If　I　celebrate　the　fall　of　
the　wall；　it　is　because　I　am　convinced　of　how　much　we　can　learn　from　each　other。　Most　
knowledge　is　learning　from　the　other　across　the　border。〃　
Yes；　the　world　became　a　better　place　to　live　in　after　11/9；　because　each　outbreak　
of　freedom　stimulated　another　outbreak；　and　that　process　in　and　of　itself　had　a　
flattening　effect　across　societies；　strengthening　those　below　and　weakening　those　
above。　〃Women's　freedom；〃　noted　Sen；　citing　just　one　example；　〃which　promotes　women's　
literacy；　tends　to　reduce　fertility　and　child　mortality　and　increase　the　employment　
opportunities　for　women；　which　then　affects　the　political　dialogue　and　gives　women　
the　opportunity　for　a　greater　role　in　local　self…government。〃　
Finally；　the　fall　of　the　wall　did　not　just　open　the　way　for　more　people　

to　tap　into　one　another's　knowledge　pools。　It　also　paved　the　way　for　the　adoption　
of　common　standards…standards　onhow　economies　should　be　run；　onhow　accounting　should　
be　done；　on　how　banking　should　be　conducted；　on　how　PCs　should　be　made；　and　on　how　
economics　papers　should　be　written。　I　discuss　this　more　later；　but　suffice　it　to　say　
here　that　common　standards　create　a　flatter；　more　level　playing　field。　To　put　it　
another　way；　the　fall　of　the　wall　enhanced　the　free　movement　of　best　practices。　When　
an　economic　or　technological　standard　emerged　and　proved　itself　on　the　world　stage；　
it　was　much　more　quickly　adopted　after　the　wall　was　out　of　the　way。　In　Europe　alone；　
the　fall　of　the　wall　opened　the　way　for　the　formation　of　the　European　Union　and　its　
expansion　from　fifteen　to　twenty…five　countries。　That；　in　combination　with　the　advent　
of　the　euro　as　a　common　currency；　has　created　a　single　economic　zone　out　of　a　region　
once　divided　by　an　Iron　Curtain。　
While　the　positive　effects　of　the　wall　coming　down　were　immediately　apparent；　the　
cause　of　the　wall's　fall　was　not　so　clear。　There　was　no　single　cause。　To　some　degree　
the　termites　just　ate　away　at　the　foundations　of　the　Soviet　Union；　which　were　already　


weakened　by　the　system's　own　internal　contradictions　and　inefficiencies；　to　some　
degree　the　Reagan　administration's　military　buildup　in　Europe　forced　the　Kremlin　to　
bankrupt　itself　paying　for　warheads；　and　to　some　degree　Mikhail　Gorbachev's　hapless　
efforts　to　reform　something　that　was　unreformable　brought　communism　to　an　end。　But　
if　I　had　to　point　to　one　factor　as　first　among　equals；　itwas　the　information　revolution　
that　began　in　the　early…to　mid…1980s。　Totalitarian　systems　depend　on　a　monopoly　of　
information　and　force；　and　too　much　information　started　to　slip　through　the　Iron　
Curtain；　thanks　to　the　spread　of　fax　machines；　telephones；　and　other　modern　tools　
of　communication