democracy in america-1-第58部分

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＇Footnote　j：　See　the　American　budgets　for　the　cost　of　indigent　citizens　and　gratuitous　instruction。　　In　1831　250；000　were　spent　in　the　State　of　New　York　for　the　maintenance　of　the　poor；　and　at　least　1；000；000　were　devoted　to　gratuitous　instruction。　　（William's　〃New　York　Annual　Register；〃　1832；　pp。　205　and　243。）　The　State　of　New　York　contained　only　1；900；000　inhabitants　in　the　year　1830；　which　is　not　more　than　double　the　amount　of　population　in　the　Department　du　Nord　in　France。＇

Difficulty　of　Distinguishing　The　Causes　Which　Contribute　To　The　Economy　Of　The　American　Government

We　are　liable　to　frequent　errors　in　the　research　of　those　facts　which　exercise　a　serious　influence　upon　the　fate　of　mankind；　since　nothing　is　more　difficult　than　to　appreciate　their　real　value。　　One　people　is　naturally　inconsistent　and　enthusiastic；　another　is　sober　and　calculating；　and　these　characteristics　originate　in　their　physical　constitution　or　in　remote　causes　with　which　we　are　unacquainted。

These　are　nations　which　are　fond　of　parade　and　the　bustle　of　festivity；　and　which　do　not　regret　the　costly　gaieties　of　an　hour。　　Others；　on　the　contrary；　are　attached　to　more　retiring　pleasures；　and　seem　almost　ashamed　of　appearing　to　be　pleased。　　In　some　countries　the　highest　value　is　set　upon　the　beauty　of　public　edifices；　in　others　the　productions　of　art　are　treated　with　indifference；　and　everything　which　is　unproductive　is　looked　down　upon　with　contempt。　　In　some　renown；　in　others　money；　is　the　ruling　passion。

Independently　of　the　laws；　all　these　causes　concur　to　exercise　a　very　powerful　influence　upon　the　conduct　of　the　finances　of　the　State。　　If　the　Americans　never　spend　the　money　of　the　people　in　galas；　it　is　not　only　because　the　imposition　of　taxes　is　under　the　control　of　the　people；　but　because　the　people　takes　no　delight　in　public　rejoicings。　　If　they　repudiate　all　ornament　from　their　architecture；　and　set　no　store　on　any　but　the　more　practical　and　homely　advantages；　it　is　not　only　because　they　live　under　democratic　institutions；　but　because　they　are　a　commercial　nation。　　The　habits　of　private　life　are　continued　in　public；　and　we　ought　carefully　to　distinguish　that　economy　which　depends　upon　their　institutions　from　that　which　is　the　natural　result　of　their　manners　and　customs。

Whether　The　Expenditure　Of　The　United　States　Can　Be　Compared　To　That　Of　France

Two　points　to　be　established　in　order　to　estimate　the　extent　of　the　public　charges；　viz。；　the　national　wealth　and　the　rate　of　taxation　…　The　wealth　and　the　charges　of　France　not　accurately　known　…　Why　the　wealth　and　charges　of　the　Union　cannot　be　accurately　known　…　Researches　of　the　author　with　a　view　to　discover　the　amount　of　taxation　of　Pennsylvania　…　General　symptoms　which　may　serve　to　indicate　the　amount　of　the　public　charges　in　a　given　nation　…　Result　of　this　investigation　for　the　Union。

Many　attempts　have　recently　been　made　in　France　to　compare　the　public　expenditure　of　that　country　with　the　expenditure　of　the　United　States；　all　these　attempts　have；　however；　been　unattended　by　success；　and　a　few　words　will　suffice　to　show　that　they　could　not　have　had　a　satisfactory　result。


In　order　to　estimate　the　amount　of　the　public　charges　of　a　people　two　preliminaries　are　indispensable：　it　is　necessary；　in　the　first　place；　to　know　the　wealth　of　that　people；　and　in　the　second；　to　learn　what　portion　of　that　wealth　is　devoted　to　the　expenditure　of　the　State。　　To　show　the　amount　of　taxation　without　showing　the　resources　which　are　destined　to　meet　the　demand；　is　to　undertake　a　futile　labor；　for　it　is　not　the　expenditure；　but　the　relation　of　the　expenditure　to　the　revenue；　which　it　is　desirable　to　know。　

The　same　rate　of　taxation　which　may　easily　be　supported　by　a　wealthy　contributor　will　reduce　a　poor　one　to　extreme　misery。　　The　wealth　of　nations　is　composed　of　several　distinct　elements；　of　which　population　is　the　first；　real　property　the　second；　and　personal　property　the　third。　　The　first　of　these　three　elements　may　be　discovered　without　difficulty。　　Amongst　civilized　nations　it　is　easy　to　obtain　an　accurate　census　of　the　inhabitants；　but　the　two　others　cannot　be　determined　with　so　much　facility。　　It　is　difficult　to　take　an　exact　account　of　all　the　lands　in　a　country　which　are　under　cultivation；　with　their　natural　or　their　acquired　value；　and　it　is　still　more　impossible　to　estimate　the　entire　personal　property　which　is　at　the　disposal　of　a　nation；　and　which　eludes　the　strictest　analysis　by　the　diversity　and　the　number　of　shapes　under　which　it　may　occur。　　And；　indeed；　we　find　that　the　most　ancient　civilized　nations　of　Europe；　including　even　those　in　which　the　administration　is　most　central；　have　not　succeeded；　as　yet；　in　determining　the　exact　condition　of　their　wealth。

In　America　the　attempt　has　never　been　made；　for　how　would　such　an　investigation　be　possible　in　a　country　where　society　has　not　yet　settled　into　habits　of　regularity　and　tranquillity；　where　the　national　Government　is　not　assisted　by　a　multiple　of　agents　whose　exertions　it　can　command　and　direct　to　one　sole　end；　and　where　statistics　are　not　studied；　because　no　one　is　able　to　collect　the　necessary　documents；　or　to　find　time　to　peruse　them？　　Thus　the　primary　elements　of　the　calculations　which　have　been　made　in　France　cannot　be　obtained　in　the　Union；　the　relative　wealth　of　the　two　countries　is　unknown；　the　property　of　the　former　is　not　accurately　determined；　and　no　means　exist　of　computing　that　of　the　latter。　

I　consent；　therefore；　for　the　sake　of　the　discussion；　to　abandon　this　necessary　term　of　the　comparison；　and　I　confine　myself　to　a　computation　of　the　actual　amount　of　taxation；　without　investigating　the　relation　which　subsists　between　the　taxation　and　the　revenue。　　But　the　reader　will　perceive　that　my　task　has　not　been　facilitated　by　the　limits　which　I　here　lay　down　for　my　researches。

It　cannot　be　doubted　that　the　central　administration　of　France；　assisted　by　all　the　public　officers　who　are　at　its　disposal；　might　determine　with　exactitude　the　amount　of　the　direct　and　indirect　taxes　levied　upon　the　citizens。　　But　this　investigation；　which　no　private　individual　can　undertake；　has　not　hitherto　been　completed　by　the　French　Government；　or；　at　least；　its　results　have　not　been　made　public。　　We　are　acquainted　with　the　sum　total　of　the　charges　of　the　State；　we　know　the　amount　of　the　departmental　expenditure；　but　the　expenses　of　the　communal　divisions　have　not　been　computed；　and　the　amount　of　the　public　expenses　of　France　is　consequently　unknown。

If　we　now　turn　to　America；　we　shall　perceive　that　the　difficulties　are　multiplied　and　enhanced。　　The　Union　publishes　an　exact　return　of　the　amount　of　its　expenditure；　the　budgets　of　the　four　and　twenty　States　furnish　similar　returns　of　their　revenues；　but　the　expenses　incident　to　the　affairs　of　the　counties　and　the　townships　are　unknown。　*k

＇Footnote　k：　The　Americans；　as　we　have　seen；　have　four　separate　budgets；　the　Union；　the　States；　the　Counties；　and　the　Townships　having　each　severally　their　own。　　During　my　stay　in　America　I　made　every　endeavor　to　discover　the　amount　of　the　public　expenditure　in　the　townships　and　counties　of　the　principal　States　of　the　Union；　and　I　readily　obtained　the　budget　of　the　larger　townships；　but　I　found　it　quite　impossible　to　procure　that　of　the　smaller　ones。　　I　possess；　however；　some　documents　relating　to　county　expenses；　which；　although　incomplete；　are　still　curious。　　I　have　to　thank　Mr。　Richards；　Mayor　of　Philadelphia；　for　the　budgets　of　thirteen　of　the　counties　of　Pennsylvania；　viz。；　Lebanon；　Centre；　Franklin；　Fayette；　Montgomery；　Luzerne；　Dauphin；　Butler；　Alleghany；　Columbia；　Northampton；　Northumberland；　and　Philadelphia；　for　the　year　1830。　　Their　population　at　that　time　consisted　of　495；207　inhabitants。　　On　looking　at　the　map　of　Pennsylvania；　it　will　be　seen　that　these　thirteen　counties　are　scattered　in　every　direction；　and　so　generally　affected　by　the　causes　which　usually　influence　the　condition　of　a　country；　that　they　may　easily　be　supposed　to　furnish　a　correct　average　of　the　financial　state　of　the　counties　of　Pennsylvania　in　general；　and　thus；　upon　reckoning　that　the　expenses　of　these　counties　amounted　in　the　year　1830　to　about　361；650；　or　nearly　75　cents　for　each　inhabitant；　and　calculating　that　each　of　them　contributed　in　the　same　year　about　2。55　towards　the　Union；　and　about　75　cents　to　the　State　of　Pennsylvania；　it　appears　that　they　each　contributed　as　their　share　of　all　the　public　expenses　（except　those　of　the　townships）　the　sum　of　4。05。　　This　calculation　is　doubly　incomplete；　as　it　applies　only　to　a　single　year　and　to　one　part　of　the　public　charges；　but　it　has　at　least　the　merit　of　not　being　conjectural。＇

The　authority　of　the　Federal　government　cannot　oblige　the　provincial　governments　to　throw　any　light　upon　this　point；　and　even　if　these　governments　were　inclined　to　afford　their　simultaneous　co…　operation；　it　may　be　doubted　whether　they　possess　the　means　of　procuring　a　satisfactory　answer。　Independently　of　the　natural　difficulties　of　the　task；　the　political　organization　of　the　country　would　act　as　a　hindrance　to　the　success　of　their　efforts。　　The　county　and　town　magistrates　are　not　appointed　by　the　authorities　of　the　State；　and　they　are　not　subjected　to　their　control。　　It　is　therefore　very　allowable　to　suppose　that；　if　the　State　was　desirous　of　obtaining　the　returns　which　we　require；　its　design　would　be　counteracted　by　the　neglect　of　those　subordinate　officers　whom　it　would　be　obliged　to　employ。　*l　It　is；　in　point　of　fact；　useless　to　inquire　what　the　Americans　might　do　to　forward　this　inquiry；　since　it　is　certain　that　they　have　hitherto　done　nothing　at　all。　There　does　not　exist　a　single　individual　at　the　present　day；　in　America　or　in　Europe；　who　can　inform　us　what　each　citizen　of　the　Union　annually　contributes　to　the　public　charges　of　the　nation。　*m　　＇Footnote　l：　Those　who　have　attempted　to　draw　a　comparison　between　the　expenses　of　France　and　America　have　at　once　perceived　that　no　such　comparison　could　be　drawn　between　the　total　expenditure　of　the　two　countries；　but　they　have　endeavored　to　contrast　detached　portions　of　this　expenditure。　　It　may　readily　be　shown　that　this　second　system　is　not　at　all　less　defective　than　the　first。　　If　I　at