the golden bough-第211部分

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osed　to　contain　the　external　soul　of　a　chief　who　resided　in　the　flesh　at　Duke　Town。　Sporting　vice…consuls　used　from　time　to　time　to　hunt　the　animal；　and　once　an　officer　contrived　to　hit　it。　Forthwith　the　chief　was　laid　up　with　a　wound　in　his　leg。　He　gave　out　that　a　dog　had　bitten　him；　but　no　doubt　the　wise　shook　their　heads　and　refused　to　be　put　off　with　so　flimsy　a　pretext。　Again；　among　several　tribes　on　the　banks　of　the　Niger　between　Lokoja　and　the　delta　there　prevails　a　belief　in　the　possibility　of　a　man　possessing　an　alter　ego　in　the　form　of　some　animal　such　as　a　crocodile　or　a　hippopotamus。　It　is　believed　that　such　a　person's　life　is　bound　up　with　that　of　the　animal　to　such　an　extent　that；　whatever　affects　the　one　produces　a　corresponding　impression　upon　the　other；　and　that　if　one　dies　the　other　must　speedily　do　so　too。　It　happened　not　very　long　ago　that　an　Englishman　shot　a　hippopotamus　close　to　a　native　village；　the　friends　of　a　woman　who　died　the　same　night　in　the　village　demanded　and　eventually　obtained　five　pounds　as　compensation　for　the　murder　of　the　woman。

Amongst　the　Zapotecs　of　Central　America；　when　a　woman　was　about　to　be　confined；　her　relations　assembled　in　the　hut；　and　began　to　draw　on　the　floor　figures　of　different　animals；　rubbing　each　one　out　as　soon　as　it　was　completed。　This　went　on　till　the　moment　of　birth；　and　the　figure　that　then　remained　sketched　upon　the　ground　was　called　the　child's　tona　or　second　self。　When　the　child　grew　old　enough；　he　procured　the　animal　that　represented　him　and　took　care　of　it；　as　it　was　believed　that　health　and　existence　were　bound　up　with　that　of　the　animal's；　in　fact　that　the　death　of　both　would　occur　simultaneously；　or　rather　that　when　the　animal　died　the　man　would　die　too。　Among　the　Indians　of　Guatemala　and　Honduras　the　nagual　or　naual　is　that　animate　or　inanimate　object；　generally　an　animal；　which　stands　in　a　parallel　relation　to　a　particular　man；　so　that　the　weal　and　woe　of　the　man　depend　on　the　fate　of　the　nagual。　According　to　an　old　writer；　many　Indians　of　Guatemala　are　deluded　by　the　devil　to　believe　that　their　life　dependeth　upon　the　life　of　such　and　such　a　beast　（which　they　take　unto　them　as　their　familiar　spirit）；　and　think　that　when　that　beast　dieth　they　must　die；　when　he　is　chased；　their　hearts　pant；　when　he　is　faint；　they　are　faint；　nay；　it　happeneth　that　by　the　devil's　delusion　they　appear　in　the　shape　of　that　beast　（which　commonly　by　their　choice　is　a　buck；　or　doe；　a　lion；　or　tigre；　or　dog；　or　eagle）　and　in　that　shape　have　been　shot　at　and　wounded。　The　Indians　were　persuaded　that　the　death　of　their　nagual　would　entail　their　own。　Legend　affirms　that　in　the　first　battles　with　the　Spaniards　on　the　plateau　of　Quetzaltenango　the　naguals　of　the　Indian　chiefs　fought　in　the　form　of　serpents。　The　nagual　of　the　highest　chief　was　especially　conspicuous；　because　it　had　the　form　of　a　great　bird；　resplendent　in　green　plumage。　The　Spanish　general　Pedro　de　Alvarado　killed　the　bird　with　his　lance；　and　at　the　same　moment　the　Indian　chief　fell　dead　to　the　ground。

In　many　tribes　of　South…Eastern　Australia　each　sex　used　to　regard　a　particular　species　of　animals　in　the　same　way　that　a　Central　American　Indian　regarded　his　nagual；　but　with　this　difference；　that　whereas　the　Indian　apparently　knew　the　individual　animal　with　which　his　life　was　bound　up；　the　Australians　only　knew　that　each　of　their　lives　was　bound　up　with　some　one　animal　of　the　species；　but　they　could　not　say　with　which。　The　result　naturally　was　that　every　man　spared　and　protected　all　the　animals　of　the　species　with　which　the　lives　of　the　men　were　bound　up；　and　every　woman　spared　and　protected　all　the　animals　of　the　species　with　which　the　lives　of　the　women　were　bound　up；　because　no　one　knew　but　that　the　death　of　any　animal　of　the　respective　species　might　entail　his　or　her　own；　just　as　the　killing　of　the　green　bird　was　immediately　followed　by　the　death　of　the　Indian　chief；　and　the　killing　of　the　parrot　by　the　death　of　Punchkin　in　the　fairy　tale。　Thus；　for　example；　the　Wotjobaluk　tribe　of　South…Eastern　Australia　held　that　'the　life　of　Ngunungunut　（the　Bat）　is　the　life　of　a　man；　and　the　life　of　Yártatgurk　（the　Nightjar）　is　the　life　of　a　woman；'　and　that　when　either　of　these　creatures　is　killed　the　life　of　some　man　or　of　some　woman　is　shortened。　In　such　a　case　every　man　or　every　woman　in　the　camp　feared　that　he　or　she　might　be　the　victim；　and　from　this　cause　great　fights　arose　in　this　tribe。　I　learn　that　in　these　fights；　men　on　one　side　and　women　on　the　other；　it　was　not　at　all　certain　which　would　be　victorious；　for　at　times　the　women　gave　the　men　a　severe　drubbing　with　their　yamsticks；　while　often　women　were　injured　or　killed　by　spears。　The　Wotjobaluk　said　that　the　bat　was　the　man's　brother　and　that　the　nightjar　was　his　wife。　The　particular　species　of　animals　with　which　the　lives　of　the　sexes　were　believed　to　be　respectively　bound　up　varied　somewhat　from　tribe　to　tribe。　Thus　whereas　among　the　Wotjobaluk　the　bat　was　the　animal　of　the　men；　at　Gunbower　Creek　on　the　Lower　Murray　the　bat　seems　to　have　been　the　animal　of　the　women；　for　the　natives　would　not　kill　it　for　the　reason　that　if　it　was　killed；　one　of　their　lubras　＇women＇　would　be　sure　to　die　in　consequence。　But　whatever　the　particular　sorts　of　creature　with　which　the　lives　of　men　and　women　were　believed　to　be　bound　up；　the　belief　itself　and　the　fights　to　which　it　gave　rise　are　known　to　have　prevailed　over　a　large　part　of　South…Eastern　Australia；　and　probably　they　extended　much　farther。　The　belief　was　a　very　serious　one；　and　so　consequently　were　the　fights　which　sprang　from　it。　Thus　among　some　tribes　of　Victoria　the　common　bat　belongs　to　the　men；　who　protect　it　against　injury；　even　to　the　half…killing　of　their　wives　for　its　sake。　The　fern　owl；　or　large　goatsucker；　belongs　to　the　women；　and；　although　a　bird　of　evil　omen；　creating　terror　at　night　by　its　cry；　it　is　jealously　protected　by　them。　If　a　man　kills　one；　they　are　as　much　enraged　as　if　it　was　one　of　their　children；　and　will　strike　him　with　their　long　poles。

The　jealous　protection　thus　afforded　by　Australian　men　and　women　to　bats　and　owls　respectively　（for　bats　and　owls　seem　to　be　the　creatures　usually　allotted　to　the　two　sexes）　is　not　based　upon　purely　selfish　considerations。　For　each　man　believes　that　not　only　his　own　life　but　the　lives　of　his　father；　brothers；　sons；　and　so　on　are　bound　up　with　the　lives　of　particular　bats；　and　that　therefore　in　protecting　the　bat　species　he　is　protecting　the　lives　of　all　his　male　relations　as　well　as　his　own。　Similarly；　each　woman　believes　that　the　lives　of　her　mother；　sisters；　daughters；　and　so　forth；　equally　with　her　own；　are　bound　up　with　the　lives　of　particular　owls；　and　that　in　guarding　the　owl　species　she　is　guarding　the　lives　of　all　her　female　relations　besides　her　own。　Now；　when　men's　lives　are　thus　supposed　to　be　contained　in　certain　animals；　it　is　obvious　that　the　animals　can　hardly　be　distinguished　from　the　men；　or　the　men　from　the　animals。　If　my　brother　John's　life　is　in　a　bat；　then；　on　the　one　hand；　the　bat　is　my　brother　as　well　as　John；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　John　is　in　a　sense　a　bat；　since　his　life　is　in　a　bat。　Similarly；　if　my　sister　Mary's　life　is　in　an　owl；　then　the　owl　is　my　sister　and　Mary　is　an　owl。　This　is　a　natural　enough　conclusion；　and　the　Australians　have　not　failed　to　draw　it。　When　the　bat　is　the　man's　animal；　it　is　called　his　brother；　and　when　the　owl　is　the　woman's　animal；　it　is　called　her　sister。　And　conversely　a　man　addresses　a　woman　as　an　owl；　and　she　addresses　him　as　a　bat。　So　with　the　other　animals　allotted　to　the　sexes　respectively　in　other　tribes。　For　example；　among　the　Kurnai　all　emu…wrens　were　brothers　of　the　men；　and　all　the　men　were　emu…wrens；　all　superb　warblers　were　sisters　of　the　women；　and　all　the　women　were　superb　warblers。

But　when　a　savage　names　himself　after　an　animal；　calls　it　his　brother；　and　refuses　to　kill　it；　the　animal　is　said　to　be　his　totem。　Accordingly　in　the　tribes　of　South…Eastern　Australia　which　we　have　been　considering　the　bat　and　the　owl；　the　emu…wren　and　the　superb　warbler；　may　properly　be　described　as　totems　of　the　sexes。　But　the　assignation　of　a　totem　to　a　sex　is　comparatively　rare；　and　has　hitherto　been　discovered　nowhere　but　in　Australia。　Far　more　commonly　the　totem　is　appropriated　not　to　a　sex；　but　to　a　clan；　and　is　hereditary　either　in　the　male　or　female　line。　The　relation　of　an　individual　to　the　clan　totem　does　not　differ　in　kind　from　his　relation　to　the　sex　totem；　he　will　not　kill　it；　he　speaks　of　it　as　his　brother；　and　he　calls　himself　by　its　name。　Now　if　the　relations　are　similar；　the　explanation　which　holds　good　of　the　one　ought　equally　to　hold　good　of　the　other。　Therefore；　the　reason　why　a　clan　revere　a　particular　species　of　animals　or　plants　（for　the　clan　totem　may　be　a　plant）　and　call　themselves　after　it；　would　seem　to　be　a　belief　that　the　life　of　each　individual　of　the　clan　is　bound　up　with　some　one　animal　or　plant　of　the　species；　and　that　his　or　her　death　would　be　the　consequence　of　killing　that　particular　animal；　or　destroying　that　particular　plant。　This　explanation　of　totemism　squares　very　well　with　Sir　George　Grey's　definition　of　a　totem　or　kobong　in　Western　Australia。　He　says：　A　certain　mysterious　connexion　exists　between　a　family　and　its　kobong；　so　that　a　member　of　the　family　will　never　kill　an　animal　of　the　species　to　which　his　kobong　belongs；　should　he　find　it　asleep；　indeed　he　always　kills　it　reluctantly；　and　never　without　affording　it　a　chance　to　escape。　This　arises　from　the　family　belief　that　some　one　individual　of　the　species　is　their　nearest　friend；　to　kill　whom　would　be　a　great　crime；　and　to　be　carefully　avoided。　Similarly；　a　native　who　has　a　vegetable　for　his　kobong　may　not　gather　it　under　certain　circumstances；　and　at　a　particular　period　of　the　year。　Here　it　will　be　observed　that　though　each　man　spares　all　the　animals　or　plants　of　the　species；　they　are　not　all　equally　precious　to　him；　far　from　it；　out　of　the　whole　species　there　is　only　one　which　is　specially　dear　to　him；　but　as　he　does　not　know　which　the　dear　one　is；　he　is　obliged　to　spare　them　all　from　fear　of　injuring　the　one。　Again；　this　explanation　of　the　clan　totem　harmonises　with　the　supposed　effect　of　killing　one　of　the　totem　species。