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　or　fatal　to　the　eater。　Examples　of　such　abstinence　are　too　familiar　and　far　too　numerous　to　quote。　But　if　the　ordinary　man　is　thus　deterred　by　superstitious　fear　from　partaking　of　various　foods；　the　restraints　of　this　kind　which　are　laid　upon　sacred　or　tabooed　persons；　such　as　kings　and　priests；　are　still　more　numerous　and　stringent。　We　have　already　seen　that　the　Flamen　Dialis　was　forbidden　to　eat　or　even　name　several　plants　and　animals；　and　that　the　flesh　diet　of　Egyptian　kings　was　restricted　to　veal　and　goose。　In　antiquity　many　priests　and　many　kings　of　barbarous　peoples　abstained　wholly　from　a　flesh　diet。　The　Gangas　or　fetish　priests　of　the　Loango　Coast　are　forbidden　to　eat　or　even　see　a　variety　of　animals　and　fish；　in　consequence　of　which　their　flesh　diet　is　extremely　limited；　often　they　live　only　on　herbs　and　roots；　though　they　may　drink　fresh　blood。　The　heir　to　the　throne　of　Loango　is　forbidden　from　infancy　to　eat　pork；　from　early　childhood　he　is　interdicted　the　use　of　the　cola　fruit　in　company；　at　puberty　he　is　taught　by　a　priest　not　to　partake　of　fowls　except　such　as　he　has　himself　killed　and　cooked；　and　so　the　number　of　taboos　goes　on　increasing　with　his　years。　In　Fernando　Po　the　king　after　installation　is　forbidden　to　eat　cocco　（arum　acaule）；　deer；　and　porcupine；　which　are　the　ordinary　foods　of　the　people。　The　head　chief　of　the　Masai　may　eat　nothing　but　milk；　honey；　and　the　roasted　livers　of　goats；　for　if　he　partook　of　any　other　food　he　would　lose　his　power　of　soothsaying　and　of　compounding　charms。

Chapter　22。　Tabooed　Words。

1。　Personal　Names　tabooed。

UNABLE　to　discriminate　clearly　between　words　and　things；　the　savage　commonly　fancies　that　the　link　between　a　name　and　the　person　or　thing　denominated　by　it　is　not　a　mere　arbitrary　and　ideal　association；　but　a　real　and　substantial　bond　which　unites　the　two　in　such　a　way　that　magic　may　be　wrought　on　a　man　just　as　easily　through　his　name　as　through　his　hair；　his　nails；　or　any　other　material　part　of　his　person。　In　fact；　primitive　man　regards　his　name　as　a　vital　portion　of　himself　and　takes　care　of　it　accordingly。　Thus；　for　example；　the　North　American　Indian　regards　his　name；　not　as　a　mere　label；　but　as　a　distinct　part　of　his　personality；　just　as　much　as　are　his　eyes　or　his　teeth；　and　believes　that　injury　will　result　as　surely　from　the　malicious　handling　of　his　name　as　from　a　wound　inflicted　on　any　part　of　his　physical　organism。　This　belief　was　found　among　the　various　tribes　from　the　Atlantic　to　the　Pacific；　and　has　occasioned　a　number　of　curious　regulations　in　regard　to　the　concealment　and　change　of　names。　Some　Esquimaux　take　new　names　when　they　are　old；　hoping　thereby　to　get　a　new　lease　of　life。　The　Tolampoos　of　Celebes　believe　that　if　you　write　a　man's　name　down　you　can　carry　off　his　soul　along　with　it。　Many　savages　at　the　present　day　regard　their　names　as　vital　parts　of　themselves；　and　therefore　take　great　pains　to　conceal　their　real　names；　lest　these　should　give　to　evil…disposed　persons　a　handle　by　which　to　injure　their　owners。

Thus；　to　begin　with　the　savages　who　rank　at　the　bottom　of　the　social　scale；　we　are　told　that　the　secrecy　with　which　among　the　Australian　aborigines　personal　names　are　often　kept　from　general　knowledge　arises　in　great　measure　from　the　belief　that　an　enemy；　who　knows　your　name；　has　in　it　something　which　he　can　use　magically　to　your　detriment。　An　Australian　black；　says　another　writer；　is　always　very　unwilling　to　tell　his　real　name；　and　there　is　no　doubt　that　this　reluctance　is　due　to　the　fear　that　through　his　name　he　may　be　injured　by　sorcerers。　Amongst　the　tribes　of　Central　Australia　every　man；　woman；　and　child　has；　besides　a　personal　name　which　is　in　common　use；　a　secret　or　sacred　name　which　is　bestowed　by　the　older　men　upon　him　or　her　soon　after　birth；　and　which　is　known　to　none　but　the　fully　initiated　members　of　the　group。　This　secret　name　is　never　mentioned　except　upon　the　most　solemn　occasions；　to　utter　it　in　the　hearing　of　women　or　of　men　of　another　group　would　be　a　most　serious　breach　of　tribal　custom；　as　serious　as　the　most　flagrant　case　of　sacrilege　among　ourselves。　When　mentioned　at　all；　the　name　is　spoken　only　in　a　whisper；　and　not　until　the　most　elaborate　precautions　have　been　taken　that　it　shall　be　heard　by　no　one　but　members　of　the　group。　The　native　thinks　that　a　stranger　knowing　his　secret　name　would　have　special　power　to　work　him　ill　by　means　of　magic。

The　same　fear　seems　to　have　led　to　a　custom　of　the　same　sort　amongst　the　ancient　Egyptians；　whose　comparatively　high　civilisation　was　strangely　dashed　and　chequered　with　relics　of　the　lowest　savagery。　Every　Egyptian　received　two　names；　which　were　known　respectively　as　the　true　name　and　the　good　name；　or　the　great　name　and　the　little　name；　and　while　the　good　or　little　name　was　made　public；　the　true　or　great　name　appears　to　have　been　carefully　concealed。　A　Brahman　child　receives　two　names；　one　for　common　use；　the　other　a　secret　name　which　none　but　his　father　and　mother　should　know。　The　latter　is　only　used　at　ceremonies　such　as　marriage。　The　custom　is　intended　to　protect　the　person　against　magic；　since　a　charm　only　becomes　effectual　in　combination　with　the　real　name。　Similarly；　the　natives　of　Nias　believe　that　harm　may　be　done　to　a　person　by　the　demons　who　hear　his　name　pronounced。　Hence　the　names　of　infants；　who　are　especially　exposed　to　the　assaults　of　evil　sprits；　are　never　spoken；　and　often　in　haunted　spots；　such　as　the　gloomy　depths　of　the　forest；　the　banks　of　a　river；　or　beside　a　bubbling　spring；　men　will　abstain　from　calling　each　other　by　their　names　for　a　like　reason。

The　Indians　of　Chiloe　keep　their　names　secret　and　do　not　like　to　have　them　uttered　aloud；　for　they　say　that　there　are　fairies　or　imps　on　the　mainland　or　neighbouring　islands　who；　if　they　knew　folk's　names；　would　do　them　an　injury；　but　so　long　as　they　do　not　know　the　names；　these　mischievous　sprites　are　powerless。　The　Araucanians　will　hardly　ever　tell　a　stranger　their　names　because　they　fear　that　he　would　thereby　acquire　some　supernatural　power　over　themselves。　Asked　his　name　by　a　stranger；　who　is　ignorant　of　their　superstitions；　an　Araucanian　will　answer；　I　have　none。　When　an　Ojebway　is　asked　his　name；　he　will　look　at　some　bystander　and　ask　him　to　answer。　This　reluctance　arises　from　an　impression　they　receive　when　young；　that　if　they　repeat　their　own　names　it　will　prevent　their　growth；　and　they　will　be　small　in　stature。　On　account　of　this　unwillingness　to　tell　their　names；　many　strangers　have　fancied　that　they　either　have　no　names　or　have　forgotten　them。

In　this　last　case　no　scruple　seems　to　be　felt　about　communicating　a　man's　name　to　strangers；　and　no　ill　effects　appear　to　be　dreaded　as　a　consequence　of　divulging　it；　harm　is　only　done　when　a　name　is　spoken　by　its　owner。　Why　is　this？　and　why　in　particular　should　a　man　be　thought　to　stunt　his　growth　by　uttering　his　own　name？　We　may　conjecture　that　to　savages　who　act　and　think　thus　a　person's　name　only　seems　to　be　a　part　of　himself　when　it　is　uttered　with　his　own　breath；　uttered　by　the　breath　of　others　it　has　no　vital　connexion　with　him；　and　no　harm　can　come　to　him　through　it。　Whereas；　so　these　primitive　philosophers　may　have　argued；　when　a　man　lets　his　own　name　pass　his　lips；　he　is　parting　with　a　living　piece　of　himself；　and　if　he　persists　in　so　reckless　a　course　he　must　certainly　end　by　dissipating　his　energy　and　shattering　his　constitution。　Many　a　broken…down　debauchee；　many　a　feeble　frame　wasted　with　disease；　may　have　been　pointed　out　by　these　simple　moralists　to　their　awe…struck　disciples　as　a　fearful　example　of　the　fate　that　must　sooner　or　later　overtake　the　profligate　who　indulges　immoderately　in　the　seductive　habit　of　mentioning　his　own　name。

However　we　may　explain　it；　the　fact　is　certain　that　many　a　savage　evinces　the　strongest　reluctance　to　pronounce　his　own　name；　while　at　the　same　time　he　makes　no　objection　at　all　to　other　people　pronouncing　it；　and　will　even　invite　them　to　do　so　for　him　in　order　to　satisfy　the　curiosity　of　an　inquisitive　stranger。　Thus　in　some　parts　of　Madagascar　it　is　taboo　for　a　person　to　tell　his　own　name；　but　a　slave　or　attendant　will　answer　for　him。　The　same　curious　inconsistency；　as　it　may　seem　to　us；　is　recorded　of　some　tribes　of　American　Indians。　Thus　we　are　told　that　the　name　of　an　American　Indian　is　a　sacred　thing；　not　to　be　divulged　by　the　owner　himself　without　due　consideration。　One　may　ask　a　warrior　of　any　tribe　to　give　his　name；　and　the　question　will　be　met　with　either　a　point…blank　refusal　or　the　more　diplomatic　evasion　that　he　cannot　understand　what　is　wanted　of　him。　The　moment　a　friend　approaches；　the　warrior　first　interrogated　will　whisper　what　is　wanted；　and　the　friend　can　tell　the　name；　receiving　a　reciprocation　of　the　courtesy　from　the　other。　This　general　statement　applies；　for　example；　to　the　Indian　tribes　of　British　Columbia；　as　to　whom　it　is　said　that　one　of　their　strangest　prejudices；　which　appears　to　pervade　all　tribes　alike；　is　a　dislike　to　telling　their　namesthus　you　never　get　a　man's　right　name　from　himself；　but　they　will　tell　each　other's　names　without　hesitation。　In　the　whole　of　the　East　Indian　Archipelago　the　etiquette　is　the　same。　As　a　general　rule　no　one　will　utter　his　own　name。　To　enquire；　What　is　your　name？　is　a　very　indelicate　question　in　native　society。　When　in　the　course　of　administrative　or　judicial　business　a　native　is　asked　his　name；　instead　of　replying　he　will　look　at　his　comrade　to　indicate　that　he　is　to　answer　for　him；　or　he　will　say　straight　out；　Ask　him。　The　superstition　is　current　all　over　the　East　Indies　without　exception；　and　it　is　found　also　among　the　Motu　and　Motumotu　tribes；　the　Papuans　of　Finsch　Haven　in　North　New　Guinea；　the　Nufoors　of　Dutch　New　Guinea；　and　the　Melanesians　of　the　Bismarck　Archipelago。　Among　many　tribes　of　South　Africa　men　and　women　never　mention　their　names　if　they　can　get　any　one　else　to　do　it　for　them；　but　they　do　not　absolutely　refuse　when　it　cannot　be　avoided。

Sometimes　the　embargo　laid　on　personal　names　is　not　permanent；　it　is　conditional　on　circumstances；　and　when　these　change　it　ceases　to　operate。　Thus　when　the　Nandi　men　are　away　on　a　foray；　nobody　at　home　may　pronounce　the　names　of　the　absent　warriors；　they　must　be　referred　to　as　birds。　Should　a　chi