the golden bough-第79部分

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Sometimes　by　an　extension　of　the　same　reasoning　all　the　near　relations　of　the　deceased　change　their　names；　whatever　they　may　happen　to　be；　doubtless　from　a　fear　that　the　sound　of　the　familiar　names　might　lure　back　the　vagrant　spirit　to　its　old　home。　Thus　in　some　Victorian　tribes　the　ordinary　names　of　all　the　next　of　kin　were　disused　during　the　period　of　mourning；　and　certain　general　terms；　prescribed　by　custom；　were　substituted　for　them。　To　call　a　mourner　by　his　own　name　was　considered　an　insult　to　the　departed；　and　often　led　to　fighting　and　bloodshed。　Among　Indian　tribes　of　North…western　America　near　relations　of　the　deceased　often　change　their　names　under　an　impression　that　spirits　will　be　attracted　back　to　earth　if　they　hear　familiar　names　often　repeated。　Among　the　Kiowa　Indians　the　name　of　the　dead　is　never　spoken　in　the　presence　of　the　relatives；　and　on　the　death　of　any　member　of　a　family　all　the　others　take　new　names。　This　custom　was　noted　by　Raleigh's　colonists　on　Roanoke　Island　more　than　three　centuries　ago。　Among　the　Lengua　Indians　not　only　is　a　dead　man's　name　never　mentioned；　but　all　the　survivors　change　their　names　also。　They　say　that　Death　has　been　among　them　and　has　carried　off　a　list　of　the　living；　and　that　he　will　soon　come　back　for　more　victims；　hence　in　order　to　defeat　his　fell　purpose　they　change　their　names；　believing　that　on　his　return　Death；　though　he　has　got　them　all　on　his　list；　will　not　be　able　to　identify　them　under　their　new　names；　and　will　depart　to　pursue　the　search　elsewhere。　Nicobarese　mourners　take　new　names　in　order　to　escape　the　unwelcome　attentions　of　the　ghost；　and　for　the　same　purpose　they　disguise　themselves　by　shaving　their　heads　so　that　the　ghost　is　unable　to　recognise　them。

Further；　when　the　name　of　the　deceased　happens　to　be　that　of　some　common　object；　such　as　an　animal；　or　plant；　or　fire；　or　water；　it　is　sometimes　considered　necessary　to　drop　that　word　in　ordinary　speech　and　replace　it　by　another。　A　custom　of　this　sort；　it　is　plain；　may　easily　be　a　potent　agent　of　change　in　language；　for　where　it　prevails　to　any　considerable　extent　many　words　must　constantly　become　obsolete　and　new　ones　spring　up。　And　this　tendency　has　been　remarked　by　observers　who　have　recorded　the　custom　in　Australia；　America；　and　elsewhere。　For　example；　with　regard　to　the　Australian　aborigines　it　has　been　noted　that　the　dialects　change　with　almost　every　tribe。　Some　tribes　name　their　children　after　natural　objects；　and　when　the　person　so　named　dies；　the　word　is　never　again　mentioned；　another　word　has　therefore　to　be　invented　for　the　object　after　which　the　child　was　called。　The　writer　gives　as　an　instance　the　case　of　a　man　whose　name　Karla　signified　fire；　when　Karla　died；　a　new　word　for　fire　had　to　be　introduced。　Hence；　adds　the　writer；　the　language　is　always　changing。　Again；　in　the　Encounter　Bay　tribe　of　South　Australia；　if　a　man　of　the　name　of　Ngnke；　which　means　water；　were　to　die；　the　whole　tribe　would　be　obliged　to　use　some　other　word　to　express　water　for　a　considerable　time　after　his　decease。　The　writer　who　records　this　custom　surmises　that　it　may　explain　the　presence　of　a　number　of　synonyms　in　the　language　of　the　tribe。　This　conjecture　is　confirmed　by　what　we　know　of　some　Victorian　tribes　whose　speech　comprised　a　regular　set　of　synonyms　to　be　used　instead　of　the　common　terms　by　all　members　of　a　tribe　in　times　of　mourning。　For　instance；　if　a　man　called　Waa　（　crow）　departed　this　life；　during　the　period　of　mourning　for　him　nobody　might　call　a　crow　a　waa；　everybody　had　to　speak　of　the　bird　as　a　narrapart。　When　a　person　who　rejoiced　in　the　title　of　Ringtail　Opossum　（weearn）　had　gone　the　way　of　all　flesh；　his　sorrowing　relations　and　the　tribe　at　large　were　bound　for　a　time　to　refer　to　ringtail　opossums　by　the　more　sonorous　name　of　manuungkuurt。　If　the　community　were　plunged　in　grief　for　the　loss　of　a　respected　female　who　bore　the　honourable　name　of　Turkey　Bustard；　the　proper　name　for　turkey　bustards；　which　was　barrim　barrim；　went　out；　and　tillit　tilliitsh　came　in。　And　so　mutatis　mutandis　with　the　names　of　Black　Cockatoo；　Grey　Duck；　Gigantic　Crane；　Kangaroo；　Eagle；　Dingo；　and　the　rest。

A　similar　custom　used　to　be　constantly　transforming　the　language　of　the　Abipones　of　Paraguay；　amongst　whom；　however；　a　word　once　abolished　seems　never　to　have　been　revived。　New　words；　says　the　missionary　Dobrizhoffer；　sprang　up　every　year　like　mushrooms　in　a　night；　because　all　words　that　resembled　the　names　of　the　dead　were　abolished　by　proclamation　and　others　coined　in　their　place。　The　mint　of　words　was　in　the　hands　of　the　old　women　of　the　tribe；　and　whatever　term　they　stamped　with　their　approval　and　put　in　circulation　was　immediately　accepted　without　a　murmur　by　high　and　low　alike；　and　spread　like　wildfire　through　every　camp　and　settlement　of　the　tribe。　You　would　be　astonished；　says　the　same　missionary；　to　see　how　meekly　the　whole　nation　acquiesces　in　the　decision　of　a　withered　old　hag；　and　how　completely　the　old　familiar　words　fall　instantly　out　of　use　and　are　never　repeated　either　through　force　of　habit　or　forgetfulness。　In　the　seven　years　that　Dobrizhoffer　spent　among　these　Indians　the　native　word　for　jaguar　was　changed　thrice；　and　the　words　for　crocodile；　thorn；　and　the　slaughter　of　cattle　underwent　similar　though　less　varied　vicissitudes。　As　a　result　of　this　habit；　the　vocabularies　of　the　missionaries　teemed　with　erasures；　old　words　having　constantly　to　be　struck　out　as　obsolete　and　new　ones　inserted　in　their　place。　In　many　tribes　of　British　New　Guinea　the　names　of　persons　are　also　the　names　of　common　things。　The　people　believe　that　if　the　name　of　a　deceased　person　is　pronounced；　his　spirit　will　return；　and　as　they　have　no　wish　to　see　it　back　among　them　the　mention　of　his　name　is　tabooed　and　a　new　word　is　created　to　take　its　place；　whenever　the　name　happens　to　be　a　common　term　of　the　language。　Consequently　many　words　are　permanently　lost　or　revived　with　modified　or　new　meanings。　In　the　Nicobar　Islands　a　similar　practice　has　similarly　affected　the　speech　of　the　natives。　A　most　singular　custom；　says　Mr。　de　Roepstorff；　prevails　among　them　which　one　would　suppose　must　most　effectually　hinder　the　'making　of　history；'　or；　at　any　rate；　the　transmission　of　historical　narrative。　By　a　strict　rule；　which　has　all　the　sanction　of　Nicobar　superstition；　no　man's　name　may　be　mentioned　after　his　death！　To　such　a　length　is　this　carried　that　when；　as　very　frequently　happens；　the　man　rejoiced　in　the　name　of　'Fowl；'　'Hat'；　'Fire；'　'Road；'　etc。；　in　its　Nicobarese　equivalent；　the　use　of　these　words　is　carefully　eschewed　for　the　future；　not　only　as　being　the　personal　designation　of　the　deceased；　but　even　as　the　names　of　the　common　things　they　represent；　the　words　die　out　of　the　language；　and　either　new　vocables　are　coined　to　express　the　thing　intended；　or　a　substitute　for　the　disused　word　is　found　in　other　Nicobarese　dialects　or　in　some　foreign　tongue。　This　extraordinary　custom　not　only　adds　an　element　of　instability　to　the　language；　but　destroys　the　continuity　of　political　life；　and　renders　the　record　of　past　events　precarious　and　vague；　if　not　impossible。

That　a　superstition　which　suppresses　the　names　of　the　dead　must　cut　at　the　very　root　of　historical　tradition　has　been　remarked　by　other　workers　in　this　field。　The　Klamath　people；　observes　Mr。　A。　S。　Gatschet；　possess　no　historic　traditions　going　further　back　in　time　than　a　century；　for　the　simple　reason　that　there　was　a　strict　law　prohibiting　the　mention　of　the　person　or　acts　of　a　deceased　individual　by　using　his　name。　This　law　was　rigidly　observed　among　the　Californians　no　less　than　among　the　Oregonians；　and　on　its　transgression　the　death　penalty　could　be　inflicted。　This　is　certainly　enough　to　suppress　all　historical　knowledge　within　a　people。　How　can　history　be　written　without　names？

In　many　tribes；　however；　the　power　of　this　superstition　to　blot　out　the　memory　of　the　past　is　to　some　extent　weakened　and　impaired　by　a　natural　tendency　of　the　human　mind。　Time；　which　wears　out　the　deepest　impressions；　inevitably　dulls；　if　it　does　not　wholly　efface；　the　print　left　on　the　savage　mind　by　the　mystery　and　horror　of　death。　Sooner　or　later；　as　the　memory　of　his　loved　ones　fades　slowly　away；　he　becomes　more　willing　to　speak　of　them；　and　thus　their　rude　names　may　sometimes　be　rescued　by　the　philosophic　enquirer　before　they　have　vanished；　like　autumn　leaves　or　winter　snows；　into　the　vast　undistinguished　limbo　of　the　past。　In　some　of　the　Victorian　tribes　the　prohibition　to　mention　the　names　of　the　dead　remained　in　force　only　during　the　period　of　mourning；　in　the　Port　Lincoln　tribe　of　South　Australia　it　lasted　many　years。　Among　the　Chinook　Indians　of　North　America　custom　forbids　the　mention　of　a　dead　man's　name；　at　least　till　many　years　have　elapsed　after　the　bereavement。　Among　the　Puyallup　Indians　the　observance　of　the　taboo　is　relaxed　after　several　years；　when　the　mourners　have　forgotten　their　grief；　and　if　the　deceased　was　a　famous　warrior；　one　of　his　descendants；　for　instance　a　great…grandson；　may　be　named　after　him。　In　this　tribe　the　taboo　is　not　much　observed　at　any　time　except　by　the　relations　of　the　dead。　Similarly　the　Jesuit　missionary　Lafitau　tells　us　that　the　name　of　the　departed　and　the　similar　names　of　the　survivors　were；　so　to　say；　buried　with　the　corpse　until；　the　poignancy　of　their　grief　being　abated；　it　pleased　the　relations　to　lift　up　the　tree　and　raise　the　dead。　By　raising　the　dead　they　meant　bestowing　the　name　of　the　departed　upon　some　one　else；　who　thus　became　to　all　intents　and　purposes　a　reincarnation　of　the　deceased；　since　on　the　principles　of　savage　philosophy　the　name　is　a　vital　part；　if　not　the　soul；　of　the　man。

Among　the　Lapps；　when　a　woman　was　with　child　and　near　the　time　of　her　delivery；　a　deceased　ancestor　or　relation　used　to　appear　to　her　in　a　dream　and　inform　her　what　dead　person　was　to　be　born　again　in　her　infant；　and　whose　name　the　child　was　therefore　to　bear。　If　the　woman　had　no　such　dream；　it　fell　to　the　father　or　the　relatives　to　determine　the　name　by　divination　or　by　consulting　a　wizard。　Among　the　Khonds　a　birth　is　celebrated　on　the　seventh　day　after　the　event　by　a　feast　given　to　the　priest　and　to　the　whole　village。　To　determine　the　child's　name　the　priest　drops　grains　of　r