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not　have　sympathized　with　nor　encouraged。　　In　these　attacks　on

ecclesiastics　and　ecclesiastical　abuses；　Chaucer　should　be　studied

with　Wyclif　and　the　early　reformers；　although　he　would　not　have

gone　so　far　as　they；　and　led；　unlike　them；　a　worldly　life。　　Thus　by

these　poems　he　has　rendered　a　service　to　his　country；　outside　his

literary　legacy；　which　has　always　been　held　in　value。　　The　father

of　English　poetry　belonged　to　the　school　of　progress　and　of

inquiry；　like　his　great　contemporaries　on　the　Continent。　　But　while

he　paints　the　manners；　customs；　and　characters　of　the　fourteenth

century；　he　does　not　throw　light　on　the　great　ideas　which　agitated

or　enslaved　the　age。　　He　is　too　real　and　practical　for　that。　　he

describes　the　outward；　not　the　inner　life。　　He　was　not　serious

enoughI　doubt　if　he　was　learned　enoughto　enter　into　the

disquisitions　of　schoolmen；　or　the　mazes　of　the　scholastic

philosophy；　or　the　meditations　of　almost　inspired　sages。　　It　is　not

the　joys　of　heaven　or　the　terrors　of　hell　on　which　he　discourses；

but　of　men　and　women　as　they　lived　around　him；　in　their　daily

habits　and　occupations。　　We　must　go　to　Wyclif　if　we　would　know　the

theological　or　philosophical　doctrines　which　interested　the

learned。　　Chaucer　only　tells　how　monks　and　friars　lived；　not　how

they　speculated　or　preached。　　We　see　enough；　however；　to　feel　that

he　was　emancipated　from　the　ideas　of　the　Middle　Ages；　and　had　cast

off　their　gloom；　their　superstition；　and　their　despair。　　The　only

things　he　liked　of　those　dreary　times　were　their　courts　of　love　and

their　chivalric　glories。



I　do　not　propose　to　analyze　the　poetry　of　Chaucer；　or　enter　upon　a

critical　inquiry　as　to　his　relative　merits　in　comparison　with　the

other　great　poets。　　It　is　sufficient　for　me　to　know　that　critics

place　him　very　high　as　an　original　poet；　although　it　is　admitted

that　he　drew　much　of　his　material　from　French　and　Italian　authors。

He　was；　for　his　day；　a　great　linguist。　　He　had　travelled

extensively；　and　could　speak　Latin；　French；　and　Italian　with

fluency。　　He　knew　Petrarch　and　other　eminent　Italians。　　One　is

amazed　that　in　such　an　age　he　could　have　written　so　well；　for　he

had　no　great　models　to　help　him　in　his　own　language。　　If

occasionally　indecent；　he　is　not　corrupting。　　He　never　deliberately

disseminates　moral　poison；　and　when　he　speaks　of　love；　he　treats

almost　solely　of　the　simple　and　genuine　emotions　of　the　heart。



The　best　criticism　that　I　have　read　of　Chaucer's　poetry　is　that　of

Adolphus　William　Ward；　although　as　a　biography　it　is　not　so　full　or

so　interesting　as　that　of　Godwin　or　even　Morley。　　In　no　life　that　I

have　read　are　the　mental　characteristics　of　our　poet　so　ably

drawn；〃his　practical　good　sense；〃　his　love　of　books；　his　still

deeper　love　of　nature；　his　naivete；　the　readiness　of　his

description；　the　brightness　of　his　imagery；　the　easy　flow　of　his

diction；　the　vividness　with　which　he　describes　character；　his

inventiveness；　his　readiness　of　illustration；　his　musical　rhythm；

his　gaiety　and　cheerfulness；　his　vivacity　and　joyousness；　his

pathos　and　tenderness；　his　keen　sense　of　the　ridiculous　and　power

of　satire；　without　being　bitter；　so　that　his　wit　and　fun　are

harmless；　and　perpetually　pleasing。



He　doubtless　had　great　dramatic　talent；　but　he　did　not　live　in　a

dramatic　age。　　His　especial　excellence；　never　surpassed；　was　his

power　of　observing　and　drawing　character；　united　with　boundless

humor　and　cheerful　fun。　　And　his　descriptions　of　nature　are　as　true

and　unstinted　as　his　descriptions　of　men　and　women；　so　that　he　is

as　fresh　as　the　month　of　May。　　In　his　poetry　is　life；　and　hence　his

immortal　fame。　　He　is　not　so　great　as　Spenser　or　Shakspeare　or

Milton；　but　he　has　the　same　vitality　as　they；　and　is　as　wonderful

as　they　considering　his　age　and　opportunities；a　poet　who

constantly　improved　as　he　advanced　in　life；　and　whose　greatest　work

was　written　in　his　old　age。



Unfortunately；　we　know　but　little　of　Chaucer's　habits　and

experiences；　his　trials　and　disappointments；　his　friendships　or　his

hatreds。　　What　we　do　know　of　him　raises　our　esteem。　　Though

convivial；　he　was　temperate；　though　genial；　he　was　a　silent

observer；　quiet　in　his　manners；　modest　in　his　intercourse　with　the

world；　walking　with　downcast　eye；　but　letting　nothing　escape　his

notice。　　He　believed　in　friendship；　and　kept　his　friends　to　the

end；　and　was　stained　neither　by　envy　nor　by　pride；as　frank　as　he

was　affectionate；　as　gentle　as　he　was　witty。　　Living　with　princes

and　nobles；　he　never　descended　to　gross　adulation；　and　never　wrote

a　line　of　approval　of　the　usurpation　of　Henry　IV。；　although　his

bread　depended　on　Henry's　favor；　and　he　was　also　the　son　of　the

king's　earliest　and　best　friend。　　He　was　not　a　religious　man；　nor

was　he　an　immoral　man；　judged　by　the　standard　of　his　age。　　He

probably　was　worldly；　as　he　lived　in　courts。　　We　do　not　see　in　him

the　stern　virtues　of　Dante　or　Milton；　nothing　of　that　moral

earnestness　which　marked　the　only　other　great　man　with　whom　he　was

contemporary；he　who　is　called　the　〃morning　star〃　of　the

Reformation。　　But　then　we　know　nothing　about　him　which　calls　out

severe　reprobation。　　He　was　patriotic；　and　had　the　confidence　of

his　sovereign；　else　he　would　not　have　been　employed　on　important

missions。　　And　the　sweetness　of　his　character　may　be　inferred　from

his　long　and　tender　friendship　with　Gower；　whom　some　in　that　age

considered　the　greater　poet。　　He　was　probably　luxurious　in　his

habits；　but　intemperate　use　of　wine　he　detested　and　avoided。　　He

was　portly　in　his　person；　but　refinement　marked　his　features。　　He

was　a　gentleman；　according　to　the　severest　code　of　chivalric

excellence；　always　a　favorite　with　ladies；　and　equally　admired　by

the　knights　and　barons　of　a　brilliant　court。　　No　poet　was　ever　more

honored　in　his　life　or　lamented　in　his　death；　as　his　beautiful

monument　in　Westminster　Abbey　would　seem　to　attest。　　That　monument

is　the　earliest　that　was　erected　to　the　memory　of　a　poet　in　that

Pantheon　of　English　men　of　rank　and　genius；　and　it　will　probably　be

as　long　preserved　as　any　of　those　sculptured　urns　and　animated

busts　which　seek　to　keep　alive　the　memory　of　the　illustrious　dead；

of　those　who；　though　dead；　yet　speak　to　all　future　generations。





AUTHORITIES。





Chaucer's　own　works；　especially　the　Canterbury　Tales；　publications

of　the　Chaucer　Society；　Pauli's　History　of　England；　ordinary

Histories　of　England　which　relate　to　the　reigns　of　Edward　III。　and

Richard　II。；　especially　Green's　History　of　the　English　People；　Life

of　Chaucer；　by　William　Godwin　（4　volumes；　London；　1804）；　Tyrwhitt's

edition　of　Canterbury　Tales；　Speglet's　edition　of　Chaucer；　Warton's

History　of　English　Poetry；　St。　Palaye's　History　of　Chivalry；

Chaucer's　England；　by　Matthew　Browne　（London；　1869）；　Sir　Harris

Nicholas's　Life　of　Chaucer；　The　Riches　of　Chaucer；　by　Charles

Cowden　Clarke；　Morley's　Life　of　Chaucer。　　The　latest　work　is　a　Life

and　Criticism　of　Chaucer；　by　Adolphus　William　Ward。　　There　is　also

a　Guide　to　Chaucer；　by　H。　G。　Fleary。　　See　also　Skeat's　collected

edition　of　Chaucer's　Works；　brought　out　under　the　auspices　of　the

Early　English　Text　Society。







CHRISTOPHER　COLUMBUS。



A。D。　1446…1506。



MARITIME　DISCOVERIES。





About　thirteen　hundred　years　ago；　when　Attila　the　Hun；　called　〃the

scourge　of　God；〃　was　overrunning　the　falling　empire　of　the　Romans；

some　of　the　noblest　citizens　of　the　small　cities　of　the　Adriatic

fled；　with　their　families　and　effects；　to　the　inaccessible　marshes

and　islands　at　the　extremity　of　that　sea；　and　formed　a　permanent

settlement。　　They　became　fishermen　and　small　traders。　　In　process

of　time　they　united　their　islands　together　by　bridges；　and　laid　the

foundation　of　a　mercantile　state。　　Thither　resorted　the　merchants

of　Mediaeval　Europe　to　make　exchanges。　　Thus　Venice　became　rich　and

powerful；　and　in　the　twelfth　century　it　was　one　of　the　prosperous

states　of　Europe；　ruled　by　an　oligarchy　of　the　leading　merchants。



Contemporaneous　with　Dante；　one　of　the　most　distinguished　citizens

of　this　mercantile　mart；　Marco　Polo；　impelled　by　the　curiosity

which　reviving　commerce　excited　and　the　restless　adventure　of　a

crusading　age；　visited　the　court　of　the　Great　Khan　of　Tartary；

whose　empire　was　the　largest　in　the　world。　　After　a　residence　of

seventeen　years；　during　which　he　was　loaded　with　honors；　he

returned　to　his　native　country；　not　by　the　ordinary　route；　but　by

coasting　the　eastern　shores　of　Asia；　through　the　Indian　Ocean；　up

the　Persian　Gulf；　and　thence　through　Bagdad　and　Constantinople；

bringing　with　him　immense　wealth　in　precious　stones　and　other

Eastern　commodities。　　The　report　of　his　wonderful　adventures

interested　all　Europe；　for　he　was　supposed　to　have　found　the

Tarshish　of　the　Scriptures；　that　land　of　gold　and　spices　which　had

enriched　the　Tyrian　merchants　in　the　time　of　Solomon；men　supposed

by　some　to　have　sailed　around　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope　in　their　three

years'　voyages。　　Among　the　wonderful　things　which　Polo　had　seen　was

a　city　on　an　island　off　the　coast　of　China；　which　was　represented

to　contain　six　hundred　thousand　families；　so　rich　that　the　palaces

of　its　nobles　were　covered　with　plates　of　gold；　so　inviting　that

odoriferous　plants　and　flowers　diffused　the　most　grateful　perfumes；

so　strong　that　even　the　Tartar　conquerors　of　China　could　not　subdue

it。　　This　island；　known　now　as　Japan；　was　called　Cipango；　and　was

supposed　to　be　inexhaustible　in　riches；　especially　when　the　reports

of　Polo　were　confirmed　by　Sir　John　Mandeville；　an　English　traveller

in　the　time　of　Edward　III。；and　with　even　greater　exaggerations；

since　he　represented　the　royal　palace　to　be　more　than　six　miles　in

circumference；　occupied　by　three　hundred　thousand　men。



In　an　awakening　age　of　enterprise；　when　chivalry　had　not　passed

away；　nor　the　credulity　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the　reports　of　this

Cipango　inflamed　the　imagination