beacon lights of history-iii-2-第7部分

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Essays；　The　Divina　Commedia　from　the　German　of　Schelling；

Voltaire's　Dictionnaire　Philosophique；　La　Divine　Comedie；　by

Lamennais；　Dante；　by　Labitte。







GEOFFREY　CHAUCER



A。D。　1340…1400。



ENGLISH　LIFE　IN　THE　FOURTEENTH　CENTURY。





The　age　which　produced　Chaucer　was　a　transition　period　from　the

Middle　Ages　to　modern　times；　midway　between　Dante　and　Michael

Angelo。　　Chaucer　was　the　contemporary　of　Wyclif；　with　whom　the

Middle　Ages　may　appropriately　be　said　to　close；　or　modern　history

to　begin。



The　fourteenth　century　is　interesting　for　the　awakening；　especially

in　Italy；　of　literature　and　art；　for　the　wars　between　the　French

and　English；　and　the　English　and　the　Scots；　for　the　rivalry　between

the　Italian　republics；　for　the　efforts　of　Rienzi　to　establish

popular　freedom　at　Rome；　for　the　insurrection　of　the　Flemish

weavers；　under　the　Van　Arteveldes；　against　their　feudal　oppressors；

for　the　terrible　〃Jacquerie〃　in　Paris；　for　the　insurrection　of　Wat

Tyler　in　England；　for　the　Swiss　confederation；　for　a　schism　in　the

Church　when　the　popes　retired　to　Avignon；　for　the　aggrandizement　of

the　Visconti　at　Milan　and　the　Medici　at　Florence；　for　incipient

religious　reforms　under　Wyclif　in　England　and　John　Huss　in　Bohemia；

for　the　foundation　of　new　colleges　at　Oxford　and　Cambridge；　for　the

establishment　of　guilds　in　London；　for　the　exploration　of　distant

countries；　for　the　dreadful　pestilence　which　swept　over　Europe；

known　in　England　as　the　Black　Death；　for　the　development　of　modern

languages　by　the　poets；　and　for　the　rise　of　the　English　House　of

Commons　as　a　great　constitutional　power。



In　most　of　these　movements　we　see　especially　a　simultaneous　rising

among　the　people；　in　the　more　civilized　countries　of　Europe；　to

obtain　charters　of　freedom　and　municipal　and　political　privileges；

extorted　from　monarchs　in　their　necessities。　　The　fourteenth

century　was　marked　by　protests　and　warfare　equally　against　feudal

institutions　and　royal　tyranny。　　The　way　was　prepared　by　the　wars

of　kings；　which　crippled　their　resources；　as　the　Crusades　had　done

a　century　before。　　The　supreme　miseries　of　the　people　led　them　to

political　revolts　and　insurrections；blind　but　fierce　movements；

not　inspired　by　ideas　of　liberty；　but　by　a　sense　of　oppression　and

degradation。　　Accompanying　these　popular　insurrections　were

religions　protests　against　the　corrupted　institutions　of　the

Church。





In　the　midst　of　these　popular　agitations；　aggressive　and　needless

wars；　public　miseries　and　calamities；　baronial　aggrandizement；

religious　inquiries；　parliamentary　encroachment；　and　reviving　taste

for　literature　and　art；　Chaucer　arose。



His　remarkable　career　extended　over　the　last　half　of　the　fourteenth

century；　when　public　events　were　of　considerable　historical

importance。　　It　was　then　that　parliamentary　history　became

interesting。　　Until　then　the　barons；　clergy；　knights　of　the　shire；

and　burgesses　of　the　town；　summoned　to　assist　the　royal　councils；

deliberated　in　separate　chambers　or　halls；　but　in　the　reign　of

Edward　III。　the　representatives　of　the　knights　of　the　shires　and

the　burgesses　united　their　interests　and　formed　a　body　strong

enough　to　check　royal　encroachments；　and　became　known　henceforth　as

the　House　of　Commons。　　In　thirty　years　this　body　had　wrested　from

the　Crown　the　power　of　arbitrary　taxation；　had　forced　upon　it　new

ministers；　and　had　established　the　principle　that　the　redress　of

grievances　preceded　grants　of　supply。　　Edward　III。　was　compelled　to

grant　twenty　parliamentary　confirmations　of　Magna　Charta。　　At　the

close　of　his　reign；　it　was　conceded　that　taxes　could　be　raised　only

by　consent　of　the　Commons；　and　they　had　sufficient　power；　also；　to

prevent　the　collection　of　the　tax　which　the　Pope　had　levied　on　the

country　since　the　time　of　John；　called　Peter's　Pence。　　The　latter

part　of　the　fourteenth　century　must　not　be　regarded　as　an　era　of

the　triumph　of　popular　rights；　but　as　the　period　when　these　rights

began　to　be　asserted。　　Long　and　dreary　was　the　march　of　the　people

to　complete　political　enfranchisement　from　the　rebellion　under　Wat

Tyler　to　the　passage　of　the　Reform　Bill　in　our　times。　　But　the

Commons　made　a　memorable　stand　against　Edward　III。　when　he　was　the

most　powerful　sovereign　of　western　Europe；　one　which　would　have

been　impossible　had　not　this　able　and　ambitious　sovereign　been

embroiled　in　desperate　war　both　with　the　Scotch　and　French。



With　the　assertion　of　political　rights　we　notice　the　beginning　of

commercial　enterprise　and　manufacturing　industry。　　A　colony　of

Flemish　weavers　was　established　in　England　by　the　enlightened　king；

although　wool　continued　to　be　exported。　　It　was　not　until　the　time

of　Elizabeth　that　the　raw　material　was　consumed　at　home。



Still；　the　condition　of　the　common　people　was　dreary　enough　at　this

time；　when　compared　with　what　it　is　in　our　age。　　They　perhaps　were

better　fed　on　the　necessities　of　life　than　they　are　now。　　All　meats

were　comparatively　cheaper；　but　they　had　no　luxuries；　not　even

wheaten　bread。　　Their　houses　were　small　and　dingy；　and　a　single

chamber　sufficed　for　a　whole　family；　both　male　and　female。　　Neither

glass　windows　nor　chimneys　were　then　in　use；　nor　knives　nor　forks；

nor　tea　nor　coffee；　not　even　potatoes；　still　less　tropical　fruits。

The　people　had　neither　bed…clothes；　nor　carpets；　nor　glass　nor

crockery　ware；　nor　cotton　dresses；　nor　books；　nor　schools。　　They

were　robbed　by　feudal　masters；　and　cheated　and　imposed　upon　by

friars　and　pedlers；　but　a　grim　cheerfulness　shone　above　their

discomforts　and　miseries；　and　crime　was　uncommon　and　severely

punished。　　They　amused　themselves　with　rough　sports；　and　cherished

religious　sentiments。　　They　were　brave　and　patriotic。



It　was　to　describe　the　habits　and　customs　of　these　people；　as　well

as　those　of　the　classes　above　them；　to　give　dignity　to　consecrated

sentiments　and　to　shape　the　English　language；　that　Chaucer　was

raised　up。



He　was　born；　it　is　generally　supposed；　in　the　year　1340；　but

nothing　is　definitely　known　of　him　till　1357；　when　Edward　III。　had

been　reigning　about　thirty　years。　　It　is　surmised　that　his　father

was　a　respectable　citizen　of　London；　that　he　was　educated　at

Cambridge　and　Oxford；　that　he　went　to　Paris　to　complete　his

education　in　the　most　famous　university　in　the　world；　that　he　then

extensively　travelled　in　France；　Holland；　and　Flanders；　after　which

he　became　a　student　of　law　in　the　Inner　Temple。　　Even　then　he　was

known　as　a　poet；　and　his　learning　and　accomplishments　attracted　the

attention　of　Edward　III。；　who　was　a　patron　of　genius；　and　who　gave

him　a　house　in　Woodstock；　near　the　royal　palace。　　At　this　time

Chaucer　was　a　handsome；　witty；　modest；　dignified　man　of　letters；　in

easy　circumstances；　moving　in　the　higher　ranks　of　society；　and

already　known　for　his　〃Troilus　and　Cresseide；〃　which　was　then

doubtless　the　best　poem　in　the　language。



It　was　then　that　the　intimacy　began　between　him　and　John　of　Gaunt；

a　youth　of　eighteen；　then　Earl　of　Richmond；　fourth　son　of　Edward

III。；　afterwards　known　as　the　great　Duke　of　Lancaster；the　most

powerful　nobleman　that　ever　lived　in　England；　also　the　richest；

possessing　large　estates　in　eighteen　counties；　as　well　as　six

earldoms。　　This　friendship　between　the　poet　and　the　first　prince　of

the　blood；　after　the　Prince　of　Wales；　seems　to　have　arisen　from　the

admiration　of　John　of　Gaunt　for　the　genius　and　accomplishments　of

Chaucer；　who　was　about　ten　years　the　elder。　　It　was　not　until　the

prince　became　the　Duke　of　Lancaster　that　he　was　the　friend　and

protector　of　Wyclif；and　from　different　reasons；　seeing　that　the

Oxford　scholar　and　theologian　could　be　of　use　to　him　in　his　warfare

against　the　clergy；　who　were　hostile　to　his　ambitious　designs。

Chaucer　he　loved　as　a　bright　and　witty　companion；　Wyclif　he　honored

as　the　most　learned　churchman　of　the　age。



The　next　authentic　event　in　Chaucer's　life　occurred　in　1359；　when

he　accompanied　the　king　to　France　in　that　fruitless　expedition

which　was　soon　followed　by　the　peace　of　Bretigny。　　In　this

unfortunate　campaign　Chaucer　was　taken　prisoner；　but　was　ransomed

by　his　sovereign　for　16　pounds；about　equal　to　300　pounds　in　these

times。　　He　had　probably　before　this　been　installed　at　court　as　a

gentleman　of　the　bedchamber；　on　a　stipend　which　would　now　be　equal

to　250　pounds　a　year。　　He　seems　to　have　been　a　favorite　with　the

court；　after　he　had　written　his　first　great　poem。　　It　is　singular

that　in　a　rude　and　ignorant　age　poets　should　have　received　much

greater　honor　than　in　our　enlightened　times。　　Gower　was　patronized

by　the　Duke　of　Gloucester；　as　Chaucer　was　by　the　Duke　of　Lancaster；

and　Petrarch　and　Boccaccio　were　in　Italy　by　princes　and　nobles。

Even　learning　was　held　in　more　reverence　in　the　fourteenth　century

than　it　is　in　the　nineteenth。　　The　scholastic　doctor　was　one　of　the

great　dignitaries　of　the　age；　as　well　as　of　the　schools；　and　ranked

with　bishops　and　abbots。　　Wyclif　at　one　time　was　the　most

influential　man　in　the　English　Church；　sitting　in　Parliament；　and

sent　by　the　king　on　important　diplomatic　missions。　　So　Chaucer；

with　less　claim；　received　valuable　offices　and　land…grants；　which

made　him　a　wealthy　man；　and　he　was　also　sent　on　important　missions

in　the　company　of　nobles。　　He　lived　at　the　court。　　His　son　Thomas

married　one　of　the　richest　heiresses　in　the　kingdom；　and　became

speaker　of　the　House　of　Commons；　while　his　daughter　Alice　married

the　Duke　of　Suffolk；　whose　grandson　was　declared　by　Richard　III。　to

be　his　heir；　and　came　near　becoming　King　of　England。　　Chaucer's

wife's　sister　married　the　Duke　of　Lancaster　himself；　so　he　was

allied　with　the　royal　family；　if　not　by　blood；　at　least　by

ambitious　marriage　connections。



I　know　of　no　poet　in　the　history　of　England　who　occupied　so　high　a

social　position　as　did　Chaucer；　or　who　received　so　many　honors。

The　poet　of　the　people　was　the　companion　o