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long as; not the gain; but gaining remains its principal aim。 In
this respect; the Yankees are superior to the English。) Or else
that; for example; certain races; formations; climates; natural
circumstances; such as maritime position; fertility of the soil;
etc。; are more conducive to production that others。 This; again;
amounts to the tautological statement that the production of
wealth grows easier in the measure that its subjective and
objective elements becomes available。
But all this is not really what the economists are concerned about in
the general part。 It is rather see for example Mill that
production; as distinct from distribution etc。; is to be presented as
governed by eternal natural laws which are independent of history; and
at the same time _bourgeois_ relations are clandestinely passed off as
irrefutable natural laws of society _in abstracto_。 This is the more or
less conscious purpose of the whole procedure。 As regards distribution;
however; it is said that men have indeed indulged in a certain amount of
free choice。 Quite apart from the crude separation of production and
distribution and their real interconnection; it should be obvious from
the outset that; however dissimilar the mode of distribution at the
various stages of society may be; it must be possible; just as in the
case of production; to emphasize the common aspects; and it must be
likewise possible to confuse and efface all historical differences in
laws that are _common to all mankind_。 For example; the slave; the
serf; the wage…worker; they all receive an amount of food enabling them
to exist as a slave; serf or wage…worker。 The conqueror who lives on
tribute; or the official who lives on taxes; or the landowner who lives
on rent; or the monk who lives on alms; or the clergyman who lives on
tithes; all receive a portion of the social product which is determined
by different laws from the portion of the slave; and so on。 The two
principal factors; which all economists include in this section; are:
(1) property; and
(2) its protection by the judiciary; police; etc。
Only a very brief reply is needed:
Regarding (1): production is always appropriation of nature by an
individual within; and with the help of a definite social organization。
In this context; it is tautological to say that property (appropriation)
is a condition of production。 But it is quite ridiculous to make a leap
from this to a distinct form of property e。g。; private property (this
is; moreover; an antithetical form; which similarly presupposed
_non…property_ as a condition)。 History has shown; on the contrary;
that common property (e。g。; among the Indians; Slavs; ancient Celts;
etc。) is the original form; and in the shape of communal property it
plays a significant role for a long time。 The question of whether
wealth develops faster under this or under that form of property is not
yet under discussion at this point。 It is tautological; however; to
state that where no form of property exists; there can be no production
and hence no society either。 Appropriation which appropriates nothing
is a contradiction in terms。
Regarding (2): Safeguarding of what has been acquired; etc。 If these
trivialities are reduced to their real content; they say more than their
authors realize namely that each mode of production produces its
specific legal relations; political forms; etc。 It is a sign of crudity
and lack of comprehension that organically coherent factors are brought
into haphazard relation with one another i。e。; into a simple reflex
connection。 The bourgeois economists have merely the view that
production proceeds more smoothly with modern police than (for example)
under club…law。 They forget; however; that club…law too is law; and
that the law of the stronger; only in a different form; still survives
even in their 〃constitutional State〃。
While the social conditions appropriate to a particular stage of
production are either still in the course of evolution; or already in a
state of dissolution; disturbances naturally occur in the process of
production; although these may be of varying degree and extent。
To recapitulate: there are categories which are common to all stage of
production and are established by reasoning as general categories; the
so…called _general conditions_ of all and any production; however; are
nothing but abstract aspects which do not define any of the actual
historical stages of production。
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