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      long as; not the gain; but gaining remains its principal aim。  In 
      this respect; the Yankees are superior to the English。) Or else 
      that; for example; certain races; formations; climates; natural 
      circumstances; such as maritime position; fertility of the soil; 
      etc。; are more conducive to production that others。  This; again; 
      amounts to the tautological statement that the production of 
      wealth grows easier in the measure that its subjective and 
      objective elements becomes available。  
 
But all this is not really what the economists are concerned about in 
the general part。  It is rather  see for example Mill  that 
production; as distinct from distribution etc。; is to be presented as 
governed by eternal natural laws which are independent of history; and 
at the same time _bourgeois_ relations are clandestinely passed off as 
irrefutable natural laws of society _in abstracto_。  This is the more or 
less conscious purpose of the whole procedure。  As regards distribution; 
however; it is said that men have indeed indulged in a certain amount of 
free choice。  Quite apart from the crude separation of production and 
distribution and their real interconnection; it should be obvious from 
the outset that; however dissimilar the mode of distribution at the 
various stages of society may be; it must be possible; just as in the 
case of production; to emphasize the common aspects; and it must be 
likewise possible to confuse and efface all historical differences in 
laws that are _common to all mankind_。  For example; the slave; the 
serf; the wage…worker; they all receive an amount of food enabling them 
to exist as a slave; serf or wage…worker。  The conqueror who lives on 
tribute; or the official who lives on taxes; or the landowner who lives 
on rent; or the monk who lives on alms; or the clergyman who lives on 
tithes; all receive a portion of the social product which is determined 
by different laws from the portion of the slave; and so on。  The two 
principal factors; which all economists include in this section; are: 
 
     (1) property; and 
 
     (2) its protection by the judiciary; police; etc。 
 
Only a very brief reply is needed: 
 
Regarding (1): production is always appropriation of nature by an 
individual within; and with the help of a definite social organization。  
In this context; it is tautological to say that property (appropriation) 
is a condition of production。  But it is quite ridiculous to make a leap 
from this to a distinct form of property  e。g。; private property (this 
is; moreover; an antithetical form; which similarly presupposed 
_non…property_ as a condition)。  History has shown; on the contrary; 
that common property (e。g。; among the Indians; Slavs; ancient Celts; 
etc。) is the original form; and in the shape of communal property it 
plays a significant role for a long time。  The question of whether 
wealth develops faster under this or under that form of property is not 
yet under discussion at this point。  It is tautological; however; to 
state that where no form of property exists; there can be no production 
and hence no society either。  Appropriation which appropriates nothing 
is a contradiction in terms。  
 
Regarding (2): Safeguarding of what has been acquired; etc。  If these 
trivialities are reduced to their real content; they say more than their 
authors realize  namely that each mode of production produces its 
specific legal relations; political forms; etc。  It is a sign of crudity 
and lack of comprehension that organically coherent factors are brought 
into haphazard relation with one another  i。e。; into a simple reflex 
connection。  The bourgeois economists have merely the view that 
production proceeds more smoothly with modern police than (for example) 
under club…law。  They forget; however; that club…law too is law; and 
that the law of the stronger; only in a different form; still survives 
even in their 〃constitutional State〃。  
 
While the social conditions appropriate to a particular stage of 
production are either still in the course of evolution; or already in a 
state of dissolution; disturbances naturally occur in the process of 
production; although these may be of varying degree and extent。  
 
To recapitulate: there are categories which are common to all stage of 
production and are established by reasoning as general categories; the 
so…called _general conditions_ of all and any production; however; are 
nothing but abstract aspects which do not define any of the actual 
historical stages of production。  
 
 
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