the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第2部分

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Despots　of　the　Fourteenth　Century

The　tyrannies；　great　and　small；　of　the　fourteenth　century　afford　　constant　proof　that　examples　such　as　these　were　not　thrown　away。　Their　　misdeeds　cried　forth　loudly　and　have　been　circumstantially　told　by　　historians。　As　States　depending　for　existence　on　themselves　alone；　and　　scientifically　organized　with　a　view　to　this　object；　they　present　to　us　　a　higher　interest　than　that　of　mere　narrative。

The　deliberate　adaptation　of　means　to　ends；　of　which　no　prince　out　of　　Italy　had　at　that　time　a　conception；　joined　to　almost　absolute　power　　within　the　limits　of　the　State；　produced　among　the　despots　both　men　and　　modes　of　life　of　a　peculiar　character。　The　chief　secret　of　government　　in　the　hands　of　the　prudent　ruler　lay　in　leaving　the　incidence　of　　taxation　as　far　as　possible　where　he　found　it；　or　as　he　had　first　　arranged　it。　The　chief　sources　of　income　were：　a　land　tax；　based　on　a　　valuation；　definite　taxes　on　articles　of　consumption　and　duties　on　　exported　and　imported　goods：　together　with　the　private　fortune　of　the　　ruling　house。　The　only　possible　increase　was　derived　from　the　growth　of　　business　and　of　general　prosperity。　Loans；　such　as　we　find　in　the　free　　cities；　were　here　unknown；　a　well…planned　confiscation　was　held　a　　preferable　means　of　raising　money；　provided　only　that　it　left　public　　credit　unshakenan　end　attained；　for　example；　by　the　truly　Oriental　　practice　of　deposing　and　plundering　the　director　of　the　finances。

Out　of　this　income　the　expenses　of　the　little　court；　of　the　bodyguard；　　of　the　mercenary　troops；　and　of　the　public　buildings　were　met；　as　well　　as　of　the　buffoons　and　men　of　talent　who　belonged　to　the　personal　　attendants　of　the　prince。　The　illegitimacy　of　his　rule　isolated　the　　tyrant　and　surrounded　him　with　constant　danger；　the　most　honorable　　alliance　which　he　could　form　was　with　intellectual　merit；　without　　regard　to　its　origin。　The　liberality　of　the　northern　princes　of　the　　thirteenth　century　was　confined　to　the　knights；　to　the　nobility　which　　served　and　sang。　It　was　otherwise　with　the　Italian　despot。　With　his　　thirst　for　fame　and　his　passion　for　monumental　works；　it　was　talent；　　not　birth；　which　he　needed。　In　the　company　of　the　poet　and　the　scholar　　he　felt　himself　in　a　new　position；　almost；　indeed；　in　possession　of　a　　new　legitimacy。

No　prince　was　more　famous　in　this　respect　than　the　ruler　of　Verona；　Can　　Grande　della　Scala；　who　numbered　among　the　illustrious　exiles　whom　he　　entertained　at　his　court　representatives　of　the　whole　of　Italy。　The　men　　of　letters　were　not　ungrateful。　Petrarch；　whose　visits　at　the　courts　of　　such　men　have　been　so　severely　censured；　sketched　an　ideal　picture　of　a　　prince　of　the　fourteenth　century。　He　demands　great　things　from　his　　patron；　the　lord　of　Padua；　but　in　a　manner　which　shows　that　he　holds　　him　capable　of　them。　'Thou　must　not　be　the　master　but　the　father　of　thy　　subjects；　and　must　love　them　as　thy　children；　yea；　as　members　of　thy　　body。　Weapons；　guards；　and　soldiers　thou　mayest　employ　against　the　　enemy…with　thy　subjects　goodwill　is　sufficient。　By　citizens；　of　　course；　I　mean　those　who　love　the　existing　order；　for　those　who　daily　　desire　change　are　rebels　and　traitors；　and　against　such　a　stern　justice　　may　take　its　course。'

Here　follows；　worked　out　in　detail；　the　purely　modern　fiction　of　the　　omnipotence　of　the　State。　The　prince　is　to　take　everything　into　his　　charge；　to　maintain　and　restore　churches　and　public　buildings；　to　keep　　up　the　municipal　police；　to　drain　the　marshes；　to　look　after　the　supply　　of　wine　and　corn；　so　to　distribute　the　taxes　that　the　people　can　　recognize　their　necessity；　he　is　to　support　the　sick　and　the　helpless；　　and　to　give　his　protection　and　society　to　distinguished　scholars；　on　　whom　his　fame　in　after　ages　will　depend。

But　whatever　might　be　the　brighter　sides　of　the　system；　and　the　merits　　of　individual　rulers；　yet　the　men　of　the　fourteenth　century　were　not　　without　a　more　or　less　distinct　consciousness　of　the　brief　and　　uncertain　tenure　of　most　of　these　despotisms。　Inasmuch　as　political　　institutions　like　these　are　naturally　secure　in　proportion　to　the　size　　of　the　territory　in　which　they　exist；　the　larger　principalities　were　　constantly　tempted　to　swallow　up　the　smaller。　Whole　hecatombs　of　petty　　rulers　were　sacrificed　at　this　time　to　the　Visconti　alone。　As　a　result　　of　this　outward　danger　an　inward　ferment　was　in　ceaseless　activity；　and　　the　effect　of　the　situation　on　the　character　of　the　ruler　was　generally　　of　the　most　sinister　kind。　Absolute　power；　with　its　temptations　to　　luxury　and　unbridled　selfishness；　and　the　perils　to　which　he　was　　exposed　from　enemies　and　conspirators；　turned　him　almost　inevitably　　into　a　tyrant　in　the　worst　sense　of　the　word。　Well　for　him　if　he　could　　trust　his　nearest　relations！　But　where　all　was　illegitimate；　there　　could　be　no　regular　law　of　inheritance；　either　with　regard　to　the　　succession　or　to　the　division　of　the　ruler's　property；　and　consequently　　the　heir；　if　incompetent　or　a　minor；　was　liable　in　the　interest　of　the　　family　itself　to　be　supplanted　by　an　uncle　or　cousin　of　more　resolute　　character。　The　acknowledgment　or　exclusion　of　the　bastards　was　a　　fruitful　source　of　contest　and　most　of　these　families　in　consequence　　were　plagued　with　a　crowd　of　discontented　and　vindictive　kinsmen。　This　　circumstance　gave　rise　to　continual　outbreaks　of　treason　and　to　　frightful　scenes　of　domestic　bloodshed。　Sometimes　the　pretenders　lived　　abroad　in　exile；　like　the　Visconti；　who　practiced　the　fisherman's　craft　　on　the　Lake　of　Garda；　viewed　the　situation　with　patient　indifference。　　When　asked　by　a　messenger　of　his　rival　when　and　how　he　thought　of　　returning　to　Milan；　he　gave　the　reply；　'By　the　same　means　as　those　by　　which　I　was　expelled；　but　not　till　his　crimes　have　outweighed　my　own。'　　Sometimes；　too；　the　despot　was　sacrificed　by　his　relations；　with　the　　view　of　saving　the　family；　to　the　public　conscience　which　he　had　too　　grossly　outraged。　In　a　few　cases　the　government　was　in　the　hands　of　the　　whole　family；　or　at　least　the　ruler　was　bound　to　take　their　advice；　and　　here；　too；　the　distribution　of　property　and　influence　often　led　to　　bitter　disputes。

The　whole　of　this　system　excited　the　deep　and　persistent　hatred　of　the　　Florentine　writers　of　that　epoch。　Even　the　pomp　and　display　with　which　　the　despot　was　perhaps　less　anxious　to　gratify　his　own　vanity　than　to　　impress　the　popular　imagination；　awakened　their　keenest　sarcasm。　Woe　to　　an　adventurer　if　he　fell　into　their　hands；　like　the　upstart　Doge　　Agnello　of　Pisa　（1364）；　who　used　to　ride　out　with　a　golden　scepter；　and　　show　himself　at　the　window　of　his　house；　'as　relics　are　shown；'　　reclining　on　embroidered　drapery　and　cushions；　served　like　a　pope　or　　emperor；　by　kneeling　attendants。　More　often；　however；　the　old　　Florentines　speak　on　this　subject　in　a　tone　of　lofty　seriousness。　Dante　　saw　and　characterized　well　the　vulgarity　and　commonplace　which　marked　　the　ambition　of　the　new　princes。　'What　else　mean　their　trumpets　and　　their　bells；　their　horns　and　their　flutes；　but　〃come；　hangmen　come；　　vultures！〃'　The　castle　of　the　tyrant；　as　pictured　by　the　popular　mind；　　is　lofty　and　solitary；　full　of　dungeons　and　listening…tubes；　the　home　　of　cruelty　and　misery。　Misfortune　is　foretold　to　all　who　enter　the　　service　of　the　despot；　who　even　becomes　at　last　himself　an　object　of　　pity：　he　must　needs　be　the　enemy　of　all　good　and　honest　men：　he　can　　trust　no　one　and　can　read　in　the　faces　of　his　subjects　the　expectation　　of　his　fall。　'As　despotisms　rise；　grow；　and　are　consolidated；　so　grows　　in　their　midst　the　hidden　element　which　must　produce　their　dissolution　　and　ruin。'　But　the　deepest　ground　of　dislike　has　not　been　stated；　　Florence　was　then　the　scene　of　the　richest　development　of　human　　individuality；　while　for　the　despots　no　other　individuality　could　be　　suffered　to　live　and　thrive　but　their　own　and　that　of　their　nearest　　dependents。　The　control　of　the　individual　was　rigorously　carried　out；　　even　down　to　the　establishment　of　a　system　of　passports。

The　astrological　superstitions　and　the　religious　unbelief　of　many　of　　the　tyrants　gave；　in　the　minds　of　their　contemporaries；　a　peculiar　　color　to　this　awful　and　God…forsaken　existence。　When　the　last　Carrara　　could　no　longer　defend　the　walls　and　gates　of　the　plague…stricken　　Padua；　hemmed　in　on　all　sides　by　the　Venetians　（1405）；　the　soldiers　of　　the　guard　heard　him　cry　to　the　devil　'to　come　and　kill　him。'

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The　most　complete　and　instructive　type　of　the　tyranny　of　the　fourteenth　　century　is　to　be　found　unquestionably　among　the　Visconti　of　Milan；　from　　the　death　of　the　Archbishop　Giovanni　onwards　（1354）。　The　family　　likeness　which　shows　itself　between　Bernabo　and　the　worst　of　the　Roman　　Emperors　is　unmistakable；　the　most　important　public　object　was　the　　prince's　boar…hunting；　whoever　interfered　with　it　was　put　to　death　with　　torture；　the　terrified　people　were　forced　to　maintain　5；000　boar　　hounds；　with　strict　responsibility　for　their　health　and　safety。　The　　taxes　were　extorted　by　every　conceivable　sort　of　compulsion；　seven　　daughters　of　the　prince　received　a　dowry　of　100；000　gold　florins　　apiece；　and　an　enormous　treasure　was　collected。　On　the　death　of　his　　wife　（1384）　an　order　was　issued　'to　the　subjects'　to　share　his　grief；　　as　once　they　had　shared　his　joy；　and　to　wear　mourning　for　a　year。　The　　_coup　de　main_　（1385）　by　which　his　nephew　Giangaleazzo　got　him　into　his　　powerone　of　those　brilliant　plots　which　make　the　heart　of　even　late　　historians　beat　more　quickly　was　strikingly　characteristic　of　the　man　。

In　Giangaleazzo　that　passion　for　the　colossal　which　was　common　to　most　　of　the　despots　shows　itself　on　the　largest　scale。　He　undertook；　at　the　　cost　of　300；000　golden　florins；　the　construction　of　gigantic　dikes；　to　　divert　in　case　of　need　the　Mincio　from　Mantua　and　the　Brenta　from　　Padua；　and　thus　to　render　these　cities　defenseless。　It　is　not　　impossible；　indeed；　that　he　thought　of　draining　away　the　lagoons　of　　Venice。　He　founded　that　most　wonderful　of　all　convents；　the　Certosa　of　　Pavia　and　the　cathedral　of　Milan；　'which　exceeds　in　size　and　splendor　　all　the　churches　of　Christendom。'　The　palace　in　Pavia；　which　his　father　　Galeazzo　began　and　which　he　hims