the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第3部分

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egan　and　which　he　himself　finished；　was　probably　by　far　the　　most　magnificent　of　the　princely　dwellings　of　Europe。　There　he　　transferred　his　famous　library；　and　the　great　collection　of　relics　of　　the　saints；　in　which　he　placed　a　peculiar　faith。　It　would　have　been　　strange　indeed　if　a　prince　of　this　character　had　not　also　cherished　the　　highest　ambitions　in　political　matters。　King　Wenceslaus　made　him　Duke　　（1395）；　he　was　hoping　for　nothing　less　than　the　Kingdom　of　Italy　or　the　　Imperial　crown；　when　（1402）　he　fell　ill　and　died。　His　whole　territories　　are　said　to　have　paid　him　in　a　single　year；　besides　the　regular　　contribution　of　1；200；000　gold　florins；　no　less　than　800；000　more　in　　extraordinary　subsidies。　After　his　death　the　dominions　which　he　had　　brought　together　by　every　sort　of　violence　fell　to　pieces：　and　for　a　　time　even　the　original　nucleus　could　with　difficulty　be　maintained　by　　his　successors。　What　might　have　become　of　his　sons　Giovanni　Maria　（died　　1412）　and　Filippo　Maria　（died　1447）；　had　they　lived　in　a　different　　country　and　under　other　traditions；　cannot　be　said。　But；　as　heirs　of　　their　house；　they　inherited　that　monstrous　capital　of　cruelty　and　　cowardice　which　had　been　accumulated　from　generation　to　generation。

Giovanni　Maria；　too；　is　famed　for　his　dogs；　which　were　no　longer；　　however；　used　for　hunting　but　for　tearing　human　bodies。　Tradition　has　　preserved　their　names；　like　those　of　the　bears　of　Emperor　Valentinian　　I。　In　May；　1409；　when　war　was　going　on；　and　the　starving　populace　cried　　to　him　in　the　streets；　_Pace！　Pace！_　he　let　loose　his　mercenaries　upon　　them；　and　200　lives　were　sacrificed；　under　penalty　of　the　gallows　it　　was　forbidden　to　utter　the　words　pace　and　guerra；　and　the　priests　were　　ordered；　instead　of　_dona　nobis　pacem_；　to　say　_tranquillitatem_！　At　　last　a　band　of　conspirators　took　advantage　of　the　moment　when　Facino　　Cane；　the　chief　Condotierre　of　the　insane　ruler；　lay　in　at　Pavia；　and　　cut　down　Giovanni　Maria　in　the　church　of　San　Gottardo　at　Milan；　the　　dying　Facino　on　the　same　day　made　his　officers　swear　to　stand　by　the　　heir　Filippo　Maria；　whom　he　himself　urged　his　wife　to　take　for　a　second　　husband。　His　wife；　Beatrice　di　Tenda；　followed　his　advice。　We　shall　　have　occasion　to　speak　of　Filippo　Maria　later　on。

And　in　times　like　these　Cola　di　Rienzi　was　dreaming　of　founding　on　the　　rickety　enthusiasm　of　the　corrupt　population　of　Rome　a　new　State　which　　was　to　comprise　all　Italy。　By　the　side　of　rulers　such　as　those　whom　we　　have　described；　he　seems　no　better　than　a　poor　deluded　fool。

Despots　of　the　Fifteenth　Century

The　despotisms　of　the　fifteenth　century　show　an　altered　character。　Many　　of　the　less　important　tyrants；　and　some　of　the　greater；　like　the　Scala　　and　the　Carrara　had　disappeared；　while　the　more　powerful　ones；　　aggrandized　by　conquest；　had　given　to　their　systems　each　its　　characteristic　development。　Naples　for　example　received　a　fresh　and　　stronger　impulse　from　the　new　Aragonese　dynasty。　A　striking　feature　of　　this　epoch　is　the　attempt　of　the　Condottieri　to　found　independent　　dynasties　of　their　own。　Facts　and　the　actual　relations　of　things；　apart　　from　traditional　estimates；　are　alone　regarded；　talent　and　audacity　win　　the　great　prizes。　The　petty　despots；　to　secure　a　trustworthy　support；　　begin　to　enter　the　service　of　the　larger　States；　and　become　themselves　　Condottieri；　receiving　in　return　for　their　services　money　and　immunity　　for　their　misdeeds；　if　not　an　increase　of　territory。　All；　whether　small　　or　great；　must　exert　themselves　more；　must　act　with　greater　caution　and　　calculation；　and　must　learn　to　refrain　from　too　wholesale　barbarities；　　only　so　much　wrong　is　permitted　by　public　opinion　as　is　necessary　for　　the　end　in　view；　and　this　the　impartial　bystander　certainly　finds　no　　fault　with。　No　trace　is　here　visible　of　that　half…religious　loyalty　by　　which　the　legitimate　princes　of　the　West　were　supported；　personal　　popularity　is　the　nearest　approach　we　can　find　to　it。　Talent　and　　calculation　are　the　only　means　of　advancement。　A　character　like　that　of　　Charles　the　Bold；　which　wore　itself　out　in　the　passionate　pursuit　of　　impracticable　ends；　was　a　riddle　to　the　Italians。　'The　Swiss　were　only　　peasants；　and　if　they　were　all　killed；　that　would　be　no　satisfaction　　for　the　Burgundian　nobles　who　might　fall　in　the　war。　If　the　Duke　got　　possession　of　all　Switzerland　without　a　struggle；　his　income　would　not　　be　5；000　ducats　the　greater。'　The　mediaeval　features　in　the　character　　of　Charles；　his　chivalrous　aspirations　and　ideals；　had　long　become　　unintelligible　to　the　Italians。　The　diplomatists　of　the　South。　when　　they　saw　him　strike　his　officers　and　yet　keep　them　in　his　service；　when　　he　maltreated　his　troops　to　punish　them　for　a　defeat；　and　then　threw　　the　blame　on　his　counsellors　in　the　presence　of　the　same　troops；　gave　　him　up　for　lost。　Louis　XI；　on　the　other　hand；　whose　policy　surpasses　　that　of　the　Italian　princes　in　their　own　style；　and　who　was　an　avowed　　admirer　of　Francesco　Sforza；　must　be　placed　in　all　that　regards　culture　　and　refinement　far　below　these　rulers。

Good　and　evil　lie　strangely　mixed　together　in　the　Italian　States　of　the　　fifteenth　century。　The　personality　of　the　ruler　is　so　highly　developed；　　often　of　such　deep　significance；　and　so　characteristic　of　the　　conditions　and　needs　of　the　time；　that　to　form　an　adequate　moral　　judgement　on　it　is　no　easy　task。

The　foundation　of　the　system　was　and　remained　illegitimate；　and　nothing　　could　remove　the　curse　which　rested　upon　it。　The　imperial　approval　or　　investiture　made　no　change　in　the　matter；　since　the　people　attached　　little　weight　to　the　fact　that　the　despot　had　bought　a　piece　of　　parchment　somewhere　in　foreign　countries；　or　from　some　stranger　passing　　through　his　territory。　If　the　Emperor　had　been　good　for　anything；　so　　ran　the　logic　of　uncritical　common　sense；　he　would　never　have　let　the　　tyrant　rise　at　all。　Since　the　Roman　expedition　of　Charles　IV；　the　　emperors　had　done　nothing　more　in　Italy　than　sanction　a　tyranny　which　　had　arisen　without　their　help；　they　could　give　it　no　other　practical　　authority　than　what　might　flow　from　an　imperial　charter。　The　whole　　conduct　of　Charles　in　Italy　was　a　scandalous　political　comedy。　Matteo　　Villani　relates　how　the　Visconti　escorted　him　round　their　territory；　　and　at　last　out　of　it；　how　he　went　about　like　a　hawker　selling　his　　wares　（privileges；　etc。）　for　money；　what　a　mean　appearance　he　made　in　　Rome；　and　how　at　the　end；　without　even　drawing　the　sword；　he　returned　　with　replenished　coffers　across　the　Alps。　Sigismund　came；　on　the　first　　occasion　at　least　（1414）；　with　the　good　intention　of　persuading　John　　XXIII　to　take　part　in　his　council；　it　was　on　that　journey；　when　Pope　　and　Emperor　were　gazing　from　the　lofty　tower　of　Cremona　on　the　panorama　　of　Lombardy；　that　their　host；　the　tyrant　Gabrino　Fondolo；　was　seized　　with　the　desire　to　throw　them　both　over。　On　his　second　visit　Sigismund　　came　as　a　mere　adventurer；　for　more　than　half　a　year　he　remained　shut　　up　in　Siena；　like　a　debtor　in　gaol；　and　only　with　difficulty；　and　at　a　　later　period；　succeeded　in　being　crowned　in　Rome。　And　what　can　be　　thought　of　Frederick　III？　His　journeys　to　Italy　have　the　air　of　　holiday…trips　or　pleasure…tours　made　at　the　expense　of　those　who　wanted　　him　to　confirm　their　prerogatives；　or　whose　vanity　is　flattered　to　　entertain　an　emperor。　The　latter　was　the　case　with　Alfonso　of　Naples；　　who　paid　150；000　florins　for　the　honour　of　an　imperial　visit。　At　　Ferrara；　on　his　second　return　from　Rome　（1469）；　Frederick　spent　a　whole　　day　without　leaving　his　chamber；　distributing　no　less　than　eighty　　titles；　he　created　knights；　counts；　doctors。　notariescounts；　indeed；　　of　different　degrees；　as；　for　instance；　counts　palatine；　counts　with　　the　right　to　create　doctors　up　to　the　number　of　five；　counts　with　the　　rights　to　legitimatize　bastards；　to　appoint　notaries；　and　so　forth。　The　　Chancellor；　however；　expected　in　return　for　the　patents　in　question　a　　gratuity　which　was　thought　excessive　at　Ferrara。　The　opinion　of　Borso；　　himself　created　Duke　of　Modena　and　Reggio　in　return　for　an　annual　　payment　of　4；000　gold　florins；　when　his　imperial　patron　was　　distributing　titles　and　diplomas　to　all　the　little　court；　is　not　　mentioned。　The　humanists；　then　the　chief　spokesmen　of　the　age；　were　　divided　in　opinion　according　to　their　personal　interests；　while　the　　Emperor　was　greeted　by　some　of　them　with　the　conventional　acclamations　　of　the　poets　of　imperial　Rome。　Poggio　confessed　that　he　no　longer　knew　　what　the　coronation　meant：　in　the　old　times　only　the　victorious　　Imperator　was　crowned；　and　then　he　was　crowned　with　laurel。

With　Maximilian　I　begins　not　only　the　general　intervention　of　foreign　　nations；　but　a　new　imperial　policy　with　regard　to　Italy。　The　first　step　　　the　investiture　of　Lodovico　il　Moro　with　the　duchy　of　Milan　and　the　　exclusion　of　his　unhappy　nephew　　was　not　of　a　kind　to　bear　good　　fruits。　According　to　the　modern　theory　of　intervention　when　two　parties　　are　tearing　a　country　to　pieces；　a　third　may　step　in　and　take　its　　share；　and　on　this　principle　the　empire　acted。　But　right　and　justice　　could　be　involved　no　longer。　When　Louis　XI　was　expected　in　Genoa　　（1507）；　and　the　imperial　eagle　was　removed　from　the　hall　of　the　ducal　　palace　and　replaced　by　painted　lilies；　the　historian　Senarega　asked　　what；　after　all；　was　the　meaning　of　the　eagle　which　so　many　revolutions　　had　spared；　and　what　claims　the　empire　had　upon　Genoa。　No　one　knew　more　　about　the　matter　than　the　old　phrase　that　Genoa　was　a　_camera　imperii_。　　In　fact；　nobody　in　Italy　could　give　a　clear　answer　to　any　such　　questions。　At　length　when　Charles　V　held　Spain　and　the　empire　together；　　he　was　able　by　means　of　Spanish　forces　to　make　good　imperial　claims：　　but　it　is　notorious　that　what　he　thereby　gained　turned　to　the　profit；　　not　of　the　empire；　but　of　the　Spanish　monarchy。

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Closely　connected　with　the　political　illegitimacy　of　the　dynasties　of　　the　fifteenth　century　was　the　public　indifference　to　legitimate　birth；　　which　to　foreigners　　for　example；　to　Commines　　appeared　so　　remarkable。　The　two　things　went　naturally　together。　In　northern　　countries；　as　in　Burgundy；　the　illegitimate　offspring　were　provided　for　　by　a　distinct　class　of