the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第67部分

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At　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century；　when　the　civilization　of　the　　Renaissance　had　reached　its　highest　pitch；　and　at　the　same　time　the　　political　ruin　of　the　nation　seemed　inevitable；　there　were　not　wanting　　serious　thinkers　who　saw　a　connexion　between　this　ruin　and　the　　prevalent　immorality。　It　was　not　one　。of　those　methodistical　moralists　　who　in　every　age　think　themselves　called　to　declaim　against　the　　wickedness　of　the　time；　but　it　was　Machiavelli；　who；　in　one　of　his　　best…considered　works；　said　openly：　'We　Italians　are　irreligious　and　　corrupt　above　others。'　Another　man　would　perhaps　have　said；　'We　are　　individually　highly　developed；　we　have　outgrown　the　limits　of　morality　　and　religion　which　were　natural　to　us　in　our　undeveloped　state；　and　we　　despise　outward　law；　because　our　rulers　are　illegitimate；　and　their　　judges　and　officers　wicked　men。'　Machiavelli　adds；　'because　the　Church　　and　her　representatives　set　us　the　worst　example。'

Shall　we　add　also；　'because　the　influence　exercised　by　antiquity　was　in　　this　respect　unfavorable'？　The　statement　can　only　be　received　with　many　　qualifications。　It　may　possibly　be　true　of　the　humanists；　especially　as　　regards　the　profligacy　of　their　lives。　Of　the　rest　it　may　perhaps　be　　said　with　some　approach　to　accuracy　that；　after　they　became　familiar　　with　antiquity；　they　substituted　for　holinessthe　Christian　ideal　of　　lifethe　cult　of　historical　greatness。　We　can　understand；　therefore；　　how　easily　they　would　be　tempted　to　consider　those　faults　and　vices　to　　be　matters　of　indifference；　in　spite　of　which　their　heroes　were　great。　　They　were　probably　scarcely　conscious　of　this　themselves；　for　if　we　are　　summoned　to　quote　any　statement　of　doctrine　on　this　subject；　we　are　　again　forced　to　appeal　to　humanists　like　Paolo　Giovio；　who　excuses　the　　perjury　of　Giangaleazzo　Visconti；　through　which　he　was　enabled　to　found　　an　empire；　by　the　example　of　Julius　Caesar。　The　great　Florentine　　historians　and　statesmen　never　stoop　to　these　slavish　quotations；　and　　what　seems　antique　in　their　deeds　and　their　judgements　is　so　because　　the　nature　of　their　political　life　necessarily　fostered　in　them　a　mode　　of　thought　which　has　some　analogy　with　that　of　antiquity。

Nevertheless；　it　cannot　be　denied　that　Italy　at　the　beginning　of　the　　sixteenth　century　found　itself　in　the　midst　of　a　grave　moral　crisis；　　out　of　which　the　best　men　saw　hardly　any　escape。

Let　us　begin　by　saying　a　few　words　about　that　moral　force　which　was　　then　the　strongest　bulwark　against　evil。　The　highly　gifted　man　of　that　　day　thought　to　find　it　in　the　sentiment　of　honour。　This　is　that　　enigmatic　mixture　of　conscience　and　egotism　which　often　survives　in　the　　modern　man　after　he　has　lost；　whether　by　his　own　fault　or　not；　faith；　　love；　and　hope。　This　sense　of　honour　is　compatible　with　much　　selfishness　and　great　vices；　and　may　be　the　victim　of　astonishing　　illusions；　yet；　nevertheless；　all　the　noble　elements　that　are　left　in　　the　wreck　of　a　character　may　gather　around　it；　and　from　this　fountain　　may　draw　new　strength。　It　has　become；　in　a　far　wider　sense　than　is　　commonly　believed；　a　decisive　test　of　conduct　in　the　minds　of　the　　cultivated　Europeans　of　our　own　day；　and　many　of　those　who　yet　hold　　faithfully　by　religion　and　morality　are　unconsciously　guided　by　this　　feeling　in　the　gravest　decisions　of　their　lives。

It　lies　without　the　limits　of　our　task　to　show　how　the　men　of　antiquity　　also　experienced　this　feeling　in　a　peculiar　form；　and　how；　afterwards；　　in　the　Middle　Ages；　a　special　sense　of　honour　became　the　mark　of　a　　particular　class。　Nor　can　we　here　dispute　with　those　who　hold　that　　conscience；　rather　than　honour；　is　the　motive　power。　It　would　indeed　be　　better　and　nobler　if　it　were　so；　but　since　it　must　be　granted　that　even　　our　worthier　resolutions　result　from　'a　conscience　more　or　less　dimmed　　by　selfishness；'　it　is　better　to　call　the　mixture　by　its　right　name。　It　　is　certainly　not　always　easy；　in　treating　of　the　Italian　of　this　　period；　to　distinguish　this　sense　of　honour　from　the　passion　for　fame；　　into　which；　indeed；　it　easily　passes。　Yet　the　two　sentiments　are　　essentially　different。

There　is　no　lack　of　witnesses　on　this　subject。　One　who　speaks　plainly　　may　here　be　quoted　as　a　representative　of　the　rest。　We　read　in　the　　recently　published　'Aphorisms'　of　Guicciardini：　'who　esteems　honour　　highly　succeeds　in　all　that　he　undertakes；　since　he　fears　neither　　trouble；　danger；　nor　expense；　I　have　found　it　so　in　my　own　case；　and　　may　say　it　and　write　it；　vain　and　dead　are　the　deeds　of　men　which　have　　not　this　as　their　motive。'　It　is　necessary　to　add　that；　from　what　is　　known　of　the　life　of　the　writer；　he　can　here　be　only　speaking　of　honour　　and　not　of　fame。　Rabelais　has　put　the　matter　more　clearly　than　perhaps　　any　Italian。　We　quote　him；　indeed；　unwillingly　in　these　pages。　What　the　　great；　baroque　Frenchman　gives　us　is　a　picture　of　what　the　Renaissance　　would　be　without　form　and　without　beauty。　But　his　description　of　an　　ideal　state　of　things　in　the　Thelemite　monastery　is　decisive　as　　historical　evidence。　In　speaking　of　his　gentlemen　and　ladies　of　the　　Order　of　Free　Will；　he　tells　us　as　follows：

'En　leur　reigle　n'estoit　que　ceste　clause：　Fay　ce　que　vouldras。　Parce　　que　gens　liberes；　bien　nayz；　bien　instruictz；　conversans　en　compaignies　　honnestes；　ont　par　nature　ung　instinct　et　aguillon　qui　tousjours　les　　poulse　。。。　faictz　tueux；　et　retire　de　vice：　lequel　ilz　nommoyent　　honneur。'

This　is　that　same　faith　in　the　goodness　of　human　nature　which　inspired　　the　men　of　the　second　half　of　the　eighteenth　century；　and　helped　to　　prepare　the　way　for　the　French　Revolution。　Among　the　Italians；　too；　　each　man　appeals　to　this　noble　instinct　within　him；　and　though　with　　regard　to　the　people　as　a　wholechiefly　in　consequence　of　the　national　　disasters　judgements　of　a　more　pessimistic　sort　became　prevalent；　the　　importance　of　this　sense　of　honour　must　still　be　rated　highly。　If　the　　boundless　development　of　individuality；　stronger　than　the　will　of　the　　individual；　be　the　work　of　a　historical　providence；　not　less　so　is　the　　opposing　force　which　then　manifested　itself　in　Italy。　How　often；　and　　against　what　passionate　attacks　of　selfishness　it　won　the　day；　we　　cannot　tell；　and　therefore　no　human　judgement　can　estimate　with　　certainty　the　absolute　moral　value　of　the　nation。

A　force　which　we　must　constantly　take　into　account　in　judging　of　the　　morality　of　the　more　highly　developed　Italian　of　this　period；　is　that　　of　the　imagination。　It　gives　to　his　virtues　and　vices　a　peculiar　color；　　and　under　its　influence　his　unbridled　egotism　shows　itself　in　its　most　　terrible　shape。

The　force　of　his　imagination　explains；　for　example；　the　fact　that　he　　was　the　first　gambler　on　a　large　scale　in　modern　times。　Pictures　of　　future　wealth　and　enjoyment　rose　in　such　lifelike　colors　before　his　　eyes；　that　he　was　ready　to　hazard　everything　to　reach　them。　The　　Mohammedan　nations　would　doubtless　have　anticipated　him　in　this　　respect；　had　not　the　Koran；　from　the　beginning；　set　up　the　prohibition　　against　gambling　as　a　chief　safeguard　of　public　morals；　and　directed　　the　imagination　of　its　followers　to　the　search　after　buried　treasures。　　In　Italy；　the　passion　for　play　reached　an　intensity　which　often　　threatened　or　altogether　broke　up　the　existence　of　the　gambler。　　Florence　had　already；　at　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century；　its　　Casanova　a　certain　Buonaccorso　Pitti；　who；　in　the　course　of　his　　incessant　journeys　as　merchant；　political　agent；　diplomatist　and　　professional　gambler；　won　and　lost　sums　so　enormous　that　none　but　　princes　like　the　Dukes　of　Brabant；　Bavaria；　and　Savoy；　were　able　to　　compete　with　him。　That　great　lottery…bank；　which　was　called　the　Court　　of　Rome；　accustomed　people　to　a　need　of　excitement；　which　found　its　　satisfaction　in　games　of　hazard　during　the　intervals　between　one　　intrigue　and　another。　We　read；　for　example；　how　Franceschetto　Cibo；　in　　two　games　with　the　Cardinal　Raffaello　Riario；　lost　no　less　than　14；000　　ducats；　and　afterwards　complained　to　the　Pope　that　his　opponent　has　　cheated　him。　Italy　has　since　that　time　been　the　home　of　the　lottery。

It　was　to　the　imagination　of　the　Italians　that　the　peculiar　character　　of　their　vengeance　was　due。　The　sense　of　justice　was；　indeed；　one　and　　the　same　throughout　Europe；　and　any　violation　of　it；　so　long　as　no　　punishment　was　inflicted；　must　have　been　felt　in　the　same　manner。　But　　other　nations；　though　they　found　it　no　easier　to　forgive；　nevertheless　　forgot　more　easily；　while　the　Italian　imagination　kept　the　picture　of　　the　wrong　alive　with　frightful　vividness。　The　fact　that；　according　to　　the　popular　morality；　the　avenging　of　blood　is　a　dutya　duty　often　　performed　in　a　way　to　make　us　shuddergives　to　this　passion　a　peculiar　　and　still　firmer　basis。　The　government　and　the　tribunals　recognize　its　　existence　and　justification；　and　only　attempt　to　keep　it　within　certain　　limits。　Even　among　the　peasantry；　we　read　of　Thyestean　banquets　and　　mutual　assassination　on　the　widest　scale。　Let　us　look　at　an　instance。

In　the　district　of　Acquapendente　three　boys　were　watching　cattle；　and　　one　of　them　said：　'Let　us　find　out　the　way　how　people　are　hanged。'　　While　one　was　sitting　on　the　shoulders　of　the　other；　and　the　third；　　after　fastening　the　rope　round　the　neck　of　the　first；　was　tying　it　to　　an　oak；　a　wolf　came；　and　the　two　who　were　free　ran　away　and　left　the　　other　hanging。　Afterwards　they　found　him　dead；　and　buried　him。　On　the　　Sunday　his　father　came　to　bring　him　bread；　and　one　of　the　two　confessed　　what　had　happened；　and　showed　him　the　grave。　The　old　man　then　killed　　him　with　a　knife；　cut　him　up；　brought　away　the　liver；　and　entertained　　the　boy's　father　with　it　at　home。　After　dinner；　he　told　him　whose　liver　　it　was。　Hereupon　began　a　series　of　reciprocal　murders　between　the　two　　families；　and　within　a　month　thirty…six　persons　were　killed；　women　as　　well　as　men。

And　such　'vendette；'　handed　down　from　father　to　son；　and　extending　to　　friends　and　distant　relations；　were　not　limited　to　the　lower　classes；　　but　reached　to　the　highest。　The　chronicles　and　novels　of　the　period　are　　full　of　such　instances；　especially　of　vengeance　taken　for　the　violation　　of　women。　The　classic　land　for　these　feuds　was　Romagna；　where　the　　'vendetta'