the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第78部分

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　these　subjects；　must　have　made　free　use　of　　this　stock　incident。　It　was　Pulci's　object　to　parody　his　predecessors；　　particularly　the　worst　among　them；　and　this　he　does　by　the　invocations　　of　God；　Christ；　and　the　Madonna；　with　which　each　canto　begins；　and　　still　more　clearly　by　the　sudden　conversions　and　baptisms；　the　utter　　senselessness　of　which　must　have　struck　every　reader　or　hearer。　This　　ridicule　leads　him　further　to　the　confession　of　his　faith　in　the　　relative　goodness　of　all　religions；　which　faith；　notwithstanding　his　　profession　of　orthodoxy；　rests　on　an　essentially　theistic　basis。　In　　another　point；　too；　he　departs　widely　from　mediaeval　conceptions。　The　　alternatives　in　past　centuries　were：　Christian；　or　else　Pagan　and　　Mohammedan；　orthodox　believer　or　heretic。　Pulci　draws　a　picture　of　the　　Giant　Margutte　who；　disregarding　each　and　every　religion；　jovially　　confesses　to　every　form　of　vice　and　sensuality；　and　only　reserves　to　　himself　the　merit　of　having　never　broken　faith。　Perhaps　the　poet　　intended　to　make　something　of　thisin　his　wayhonest　monster；　　possibly　to　have　led　him　into　virtuous　paths　by　Morgante；　but　he　soon　　got　tired　of　his　own　creation；　and　in　the　next　canto　brought　him　to　a　　comic　end。　Margutte　has　been　brought　forward　as　a　proof　of　Pulci's　　frivolity；　but　he　is　needed　to　complete　the　picture　of　the　poetry　of　　the　fifteenth　century。　It　was　natural　that　it　should　somewhere　present　　in　grotesque　proportions　the　figure　of　an　untamed　egotism；　insensible　　to　all　established　rule；　and　yet　with　a　remnant　of　honorable　feeling　　left。　In　other　poems　sentiments　are　put　into　the　mouths　of　giants；　　fiends；　infidels；　and　Mohammedans　which　no　Christian　knight　would　　venture　to　utter。

Antiquity　exercised　an　influence　of　another　kind　than　that　of　Islam；　　and　this　not　through　its　religion；　which　was　but　too　much　like　the　　Catholicism　of　this　period；　but　through　its　philosophy。　Ancient　　literature；　now　respected　as　something　incomparable；　is　full　of　the　　victory　of　philosophy　over　religious　tradition。　An　endless　number　of　　systems　and　fragments　of　systems　were　suddenly　presented　to　the　Italian　　mind；　not　as　curiosities　or　even　as　heresies；　but　almost　with　the　　authority　of　dogmas；　which　had　now　to　be　reconciled　rather　than　　discriminated。　In　nearly　all　these　various　opinions　and　doctrines　a　　certain　kind　of　belief　in　God　was　implied；　but　taken　altogether　they　　formed　a　marked　contrast　to　the　Christian　faith　in　a　Divine　government　　of　the　world。　And　there　was　one　central　question；　which　mediaeval　　theology　had　striven　in　vain　to　solve；　and　which　now　urgently　demanded　　an　answer　from　the　wisdom　of　the　ancients；　namely；　the　relation　of　　Providence　to　the　freedom　or　necessity　of　the　human　will。　To　write　the　　history　of　this　question　even　superficially　from　the　fourteenth　century　　onwards；　would　require　a　whole　volume。　A　few　hints　must　here　suffice。

If　we　take　Dante　and　his　contemporaries　as　evidence；　we　shall　find　that　　ancient　philosophy　first　came　into　contact　with　Italian　life　in　the　　form　which　offered　the　most　marked　contrast　to　Christianity；　that　is　to　　say；　Epicureanism。　The　writings　of　Epicurus　were　no　longer　preserved；　　and　even　at　the　close　of　the　classical　age　a　more　or　less　one…sided　　conception　had　been　formed　of　his　philosophy。　Nevertheless；　that　phase　　of　Epicureanism　which　can　be　studied　in　Lucretius；　and　especially　in　　Cicero；　is　quite　sufficient　to　make　men　familiar　with　a　godless　　universe。　To　what　extent　his　teaching　was　actually　understood；　and　　whether　the　name　of　the　problematic　Greek　sage　was　not　rather　a　　catchword　for　the　multitude；　it　is　hard　to　say。　It　is　probable　that　the　　Dominican　Inquisition　used　it　against　men　who　could　not　be　reached　by　a　　more　definite　accusation。　In　the　case　of　sceptics　born　before　the　time　　was　ripe；　whom　it　was　yet　hard　to　convict　of　positive　heretical　　utterances；　a　moderate　degree　of　luxurious　living　may　have　sufficed　to　　provoke　the　charge。　The　word　is　used　in　this　conventional　sense　by　　Giovanni　Villani；　when　he　explains　the　Florentine　fires　of　1115　and　　1117　as　a　Divine　judgement　on　heresies；　among　others；　'on　the　luxurious　　and　gluttonous　sect　of　Epicureans。'　The　same　writer　says　of　Manfred；　　'His　life　was　Epicurean；　since　he　believed　neither　in　God；　nor　in　the　　Saints；　but　only　in　bodily　pleasure。'

Dante　speaks　still　more　clearly　in　the　ninth　and　tenth　cantos　of　the　　'Inferno。'　That　terrible　fiery　field　covered　with　half…opened　tombs；　　from　which　issued　cries　of　hopeless　agony；　was　peopled　by　the　two　great　　classes　of　those　whom　the　Church　had　vanquished　or　expelled　in　the　　thirteenth　century。　The　one　were　heretics　who　opposed　the　Church　by　　deliberately　spreading　false　doctrine；　the　other　were　Epicureans；　and　　their　sin　against　the　Church　lay　in　their　general　disposition；　which　　was　summed　up　in　the　belief　that　the　soul　dies　with　the　body。　The　　Church　was　well　aware　that　this　one　doctrine；　if　it　gained　ground；　must　　be　more　ruinous　to　her　authority　than　all　the　teachings　of　the　　Manichaeans　and　Paterines；　since　it　took　away　all　reason　for　her　　interference　in　the　affairs　of　men　after　death。　That　the　means　which　　she　used　in　her　struggles　were　precisely　what　had　driven　the　most　　gifted　natures　to　unbelief　and　despair　was　what　she　naturally　would　not　　herself　admit。

Dante's　loathing　of　Epicurus；　or　of　what　he　took　to　be　his　doctrine；　　was　certainly　sincere。　The　poet　of　the　life　to　come　could　not　but　　detest　the　denier　of　immortality；　and　a　world　neither　made　nor　ruled　by　　God；　no　less　than　the　vulgar　objects　of　earthly　life　which　the　system　　appeared　to　countenance；　could　not　but　be　intensely　repugnant　to　a　　nature　like　his。　But　if　we　look　closer；　we　find　that　certain　doctrines　　of　the　ancients　made　even　on　him　an　impression　which　forced　the　　biblical　doctrine　of　the　Divine　government　into　the　background　unless；　　indeed；　it　was　his　own　reflection；　the　influence　of　opinions　then　　prevalent；　or　loathing　for　the　injustice　that　seemed　to　rule　this　　world；　which　made　him　give　up　the　belief　in　a　special　Providence　His　　God　leaves　all　the　details　of　the　world's　government　to　a　deputy；　　Fortune；　whose　sole　work　it　is　to　change　and　change　again　all　earthly　　things；　and　who　can　disregard　the　wailings　of　men　in　unalterable　　beatitude。　Nevertheless；　Dante　does　not　for　a　moment　fail　to　insist　on　　the　moral　responsibility　of　man；　he　believes　in　free　will。　The　belief　　in　the　freedom　of　the　will；　in　the　popular　sense　of　the　words；　has　　always　prevailed　in　Western　countries。　At　all　times　men　have　been　held　　responsible　for　their　actions；　as　though　this　freedom　were　a　matter　of　　course。　The　case　is　otherwise　with　the　religious　and　philosophical　　doctrine；　which　labors　under　the　difficulty　of　harmonizing　the　nature　　of　the　will　with　the　laws　of　the　universe　at　large。　We　have　here　to　do　　with　a　question　of　more　or　less；　which　every　moral　estimate　must　take　　into　account。　Dante　is　not　wholly　free　from　those　astrological　　superstitions　which　illumined　the　horizon　of　his　time　with　deceptive　　light；　but　they　do　not　hinder　him　from　rising　to　a　worthy　conception　of　　human　nature。　'The　stars；'　he　makes　his　Marco　Lambert　say　　（'Purgatorio；'　xvi；　73）；　'the　stars　give　the　first　impulse　to　your　　actions；　but　a　light　is　given　you　to　know　good　and　evil；　and　free　will；　　which；　if　it　endure　the　strain　in　its　first　battlings　with　the　heavens；　　at　length　gains　the　whole　victory；　if　it　be　well　nurtured。'

Others　might　seek　the　necessity　which　annulled　human　freedom　in　another　　power　than　the　stars；　but　the　question　was　henceforth　an　open　and　　inevitable　one。　So　far　as　it　was　a　question　for　the　schools　or　the　　pursuit　of　isolated　thinkers；　its　treatment　belongs　to　the　historian　of　　philosophy。　But　inasmuch　as　it　entered　into　the　consciousness　of　a　　wider　public；　it　is　necessary　for　us　to　say　a　few　words　respecting　it。

The　fourteenth　century　was　chiefly　stimulated　by　the　writings　of　　Cicero；　who；　though　in　fact　an　eclectic；　yet；　by　his　habit　of　setting　　forth　the　opinions　of　different　schools；　without　coming　to　a　decision　　between　them；　exercised　the　influence　of　a　skeptic。　Next　in　importance　　came　Seneca；　and　the　few　works　of　Aristotle　which　had　been　translated　　into　Latin。　The　immediate　fruit　of　these　studies　was　the　capacity　to　　reflect　on　great　subjects；　if　not　in　direct　opposition　to　the　authority　　of　the　Church；　at　all　events　independently　of　it。

In　the　course　of　the　fifteenth　century　the　works　of　antiquity　were　　discovered　and　diffused　with　extraordinary　rapidity。　All　the　writings　　of　the　Greek　philosophers　which　we　ourselves　possess　were　now；　at　least　　in　the　form　of　Latin　translations；　in　everybody's　hands。　It　is　a　　curious　fact　that　some　of　the　most　zealous　apostles　of　this　new　culture　　were　men　of　the　strictest　piety；　or　even　ascetics。　Fra　Ambrogio　　Camaldolese；　as　a　spiritual　dignitary　chiefly　occupied　with　　ecclesiastical　affairs；　and　as　a　literary　man　with　the　translation　of　　the　Greek　Fathers　of　the　Church；　could　not　repress　the　humanistic　　impulse；　and　at　the　request　of　Cosimo　de'　Medici；　undertook　to　　translate　Diogenes　Laertius　into　Latin。　His　contemporaries；　Niccolo　　Niccoli；　Giannozzo　Manetti；　Donato　Acciaiuoli；　and　Pope　Nicholas　V；　　united　to　a　many…sided　humanism　profound　biblical　scholarship　and　deep　　piety。　In　Vittorino　da　Feltre　the　same　temper　has　been　already　noticed。　　The　same　Maffeo　Vegio；　who　added　a　thirteenth　book　to　the　Aeneid；　had　　an　enthusiasm　for　the　memory　of　St。　Augustine　and　his　mother；　Monica；　　which　cannot　have　been　without　a　deeper　influence　upon　him。　The　result　　of　all　these　tendencies　was　that　the　Platonic　Academy　at　Florence　　deliberately　chose　for　its　object　the　reconciliation　of　the　spirit　of　　antiquity　with　that　of　Christianity。　It　was　a　remarkable　oasis　in　the　　humanism　of　the　period。

This　humanism　was　in　fact　pagan；　and　became　more　and　more　so　as　its　　sphere　widened　in　the　fifteenth　century。　Its　representatives；　whom　we　　have　already　described　as　the　advance　guard　of　an　unbridled　　individualism；　display　as　a　rule　such　a　character　that　even　their　　religion；　which　is　sometimes　professed　very　definitely；　becomes　a　　matter　of　indifference　to　us。　They　easily　got　the　name　of　atheists；　if　　they　showed　themselves　indifferent　to　religion　and　spoke　freely　a