the spirit of laws-第122部分

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then　there　would　be　no　end　of　disputes。

In　process　of　time　a　private　form　of　proceeding　was　introduced。　Everything　before　had　been　public；　everything　now　became　secret；　the　interrogatories；　the　informations；　the　re…examinations；　the　confronting　of　witnesses；　the　opinion　of　the　attorney…general；　and　this　is　the　present　practice。　The　first　form　of　proceeding　was　suitable　to　the　government　of　that　time；　as　the　new　form　was　proper　to　the　government　since　established。

Boutillier's　commentator　fixes　the　epoch　of　this　change　to　the　ordinance　in　the　year　1539。　I　am　apt　to　believe　that　the　change　was　made　insensibly；　and　passed　from　one　lordship　to　another；　in　proportion　as　the　lords　renounced　the　ancient　form　of　judging；　and　that　derived　from　the　Institutions　of　St。　Louis　was　improved。　And　indeed；　Beaumanoir　says＇256＇　that　witnesses　were　publicly　heard　only　in　cases　in　which　it　was　allowed　to　give　pledges　of　battle：　in　others　they　were　heard　in　secret；　and　their　depositions　were　reduced　to　writing。　The　proceedings　became；　therefore；　secret；　when　they　ceased　to　give　pledges　of　battle。

35。　Of　the　Costs。　In　former　times　no　one　was　condemned　in　the　lay　courts　of　France　to　the　payment　of　costs。＇257＇　The　party　cast　was　sufficiently　punished　by　pecuniary　fines　to　the　lord　and　his　peers。　From　the　manner　of　proceeding　by　judicial　combat　it　followed；　that　the　party　condemned　and　deprived　of　life　and　fortune　was　punished　as　much　as　he　could　be：　and　in　the　other　cases　of　the　judicial　combat；　there　were　fines　sometimes　fixed；　and　sometimes　dependent　on　the　disposition　of　the　lord；　which　were　sufficient　to　make　people　dread　the　consequences　of　suits。　The　same　may　be　said　of　causes　that　were　not　decided　by　combat。　As　the　lord　had　the　chief　profits；　so　he　was　also　at　the　chief　expense；　either　to　assemble　his　peers；　or　to　enable　them　to　proceed　to　judgment。　Besides；　as　disputes　were　generally　determined　at　the　same　place；　and　almost　always　at　the　same　time；　without　that　infinite　multitude　of　writings　which　afterwards　followed；　there　was　no　necessity　of　allowing　costs　to　the　parties。

The　custom　of　appeals　naturally　introduced　that　of　giving　costs。　Thus　Défontaines　says；＇258＇　that　when　they　appealed　by　written　law；　that　is；　when　they　followed　the　new　laws　of　St。　Louis；　they　gave　costs；　but　that　in　the　ordinary　practice；　which　did　not　permit　them　to　appeal　without　falsifying　the　judgment；　no　costs　were　allowed。　They　obtained　only　a　fine；　and　the　possession　for　a　year　and　a　day　of　the　thing　contested；　if　the　cause　was　remanded　to　the　lord。

But　when　the　number　of　appeals　increased　from　the　new　facility　of　appealing；＇259＇　when　by　the　frequent　usage　of　those　appeals　from　one　court　to　another；　the　parties　were　continually　removed　from　the　place　of　their　residence；　when　the　new　method　of　procedure　multiplied　and　prolonged　the　suits；　when　the　art　of　eluding　the　very　justest　demands　became　refined；　when　the　parties　at　law　knew　how　to　fly　only　in　order　to　be　followed；　when　plaints　were　ruinous　and　defence　easy；　when　the　arguments　were　lost　in　whole　volumes　of　words　and　writings；　when　the　kingdom　was　filled　with　limbs　of　the　law；　who　were　strangers　to　justice；　when　knavery　found　encouragement　at　the　very　place　where　it　did　not　find　protection；　then　it　was　necessary　to　deter　litigious　people　by　the　fear　of　costs。　They　were　obliged　to　pay　costs　for　the　judgment　and　for　the　means　they　had　employed　to　elude　it。　Charles　the　Fair　made　a　general　ordinance　on　that　subject。＇260＇

36。　Of　the　public　Prosecutor。　As　by　the　Salic；　Ripuarian；　and　other　barbarous　laws；　crimes　were　punished　with　pecuniary　fines；　they　had　not　in　those　days；　as　we　have　at　present；　a　public　officer　who　had　the　care　of　criminal　prosecutions。　And；　indeed；　the　issue　of　all　causes　being　reduced　to　the　reparation　of　injuries；　every　prosecution　was　in　some　measure　civil；　and　might　be　managed　by　any　one。　On　the　other　hand；　the　Roman　law　had　popular　forms　for　the　prosecution　of　crimes　which　were　inconsistent　with　the　functions　of　a　public　prosecutor。

The　custom　of　judicial　combats　was　no　less　opposite　to　this　idea；　for　who　is　it　that　would　choose　to　be　a　public　prosecutor　and　to　make　himself　every　man's　champion　against　all　the　world？

I　find　in　the　collection　of　formulas；　inserted　by　Muratori　in　the　laws　of　the　Lombards；　that　under　our　princes　of　the　second　race　there　was　an　advocate　for　the　public　prosecutor。＇261＇　But　whoever　pleases　to　read　the　entire　collection　of　these　formulas　will　find　that　there　was　a　total　difference　between　such　officers　and　those　we　now　call　the　public　prosecutor；　our　attorneys…general；　our　king's　solicitors；　or　our　solicitors　for　the　nobility。　The　former　were　rather　agents　to　the　public　for　the　management　of　political　and　domestic　affairs；　than　for　the　civil。　And；　indeed；　we　did　not　find　in　those　formulas　that　they　were　entrusted　with　criminal　prosecutions；　or　with　causes　relating　to　minors；　to　churches；　or　to　the　condition　of　any　one。

I　said　that　the　establishment　of　a　public　prosecutor　was　repugnant　to　the　usage　of　judicial　combats。　I　find；　notwithstanding；　in　one　of　those　formulas；　an　advocate　for　the　public　prosecutor；　who　had　the　liberty　to　fight。　Muratori　has　placed　it　just　after　the　constitution　of　Henry　I；　for　which　it　was　made。＇262＇　In　this　constitution　it　is　said；　〃That　if　any　man　kills　his　father；　his　brother；　or　any　of　his　other　relatives；　he　shall　lose　their　succession；　which　shall　pass　to　the　other　relatives；　and　his　own　property　shall　go　to　the　exchequer。〃　Now　it　was　in　suing　for　the　estate　which　had　devolved　to　the　exchequer；　that　the　advocate　for　the　public　prosecutor；　by　whom　its　rights　were　defended；　had　the　privilege　of　fighting：　this　case　fell　within　the　general　rule。

We　see　in　those　formulas　the　advocate　for　the　public　prosecutor　proceeding　against　a　person　who　had　taken　a　robber；　but　had　not　brought　him　before　the　count；＇263＇　against　another　who　had　raised　an　insurrection　or　tumult　against　the　count；＇264＇　against　another　who　had　saved　a　man's　life　whom　the　count　had　ordered　to　be　put　to　death；＇265＇　against　the　advocate　of　some　churches；　whom　the　count　had　commanded　to　bring　a　robber　before　him；　but　had　not　obeyed；＇266＇　against　another　who　had　revealed　the　king's　secret　to　strangers；＇267＇　against　another；　who　with　open　violence　had　attacked　the　emperor's　commissary；＇268＇　against　another　who　had　been　guilty　of　contempt　to　the　emperor's　rescripts；　and　he　was　prosecuted　either　by　the　emperor's　advocate　or　by　the　emperor　himself；＇269＇　against　another　who　refused　to　accept　of　the　prince's　coin；＇270＇　in　fine；　this　advocate　sued　for　things　which　by　the　law　were　adjudged　to　the　exchequer。＇271＇

But　in　criminal　causes；　we　never　meet　with　the　advocate　for　the　public　prosecutor；　not　even　where　duels　are　used；＇272＇　not　even　in　the　case　of　incendiaries；＇273＇　not　even　when　the　judge　is　killed　on　his　bench；＇274＇　not　even　in　causes　relating　to　the　conditions　of　persons；＇275＇　to　liberty　and　slavery。＇276＇

These　formulas　are　made；　not　only　for　the　laws　of　the　Lombards；　but　likewise　for　the　capitularies　added　to　them；　so　that　we　have　no　reason　to　doubt　of　their　giving　us　the　practice　observed　with　regard　to　this　subject　under　our　princes　of　the　second　race。

It　is　obvious　that　these　advocates　for　a　public　prosecutor　must　have　ended　with　our　second　race　of　kings；　in　the　same　manner　as　the　king's　commissioners　in　the　provinces；　because　there　was　no　longer　a　general　law　nor　general　exchequer；　and　because　there　were　no　longer　any　counts　in　the　provinces　to　hold　the　assizes；　and；　of　course；　there　were　no　more　of　those　officers　whose　principal　function　was　to　support　the　authority　of　the　counts。

As　the　usage　of　combats　became　more　frequent　under　the　third　race；　it　did　not　allow　of　any　such　thing　as　a　public　prosecutor。　Hence　Boutillier；　in　his　Somme　Rurale；　speaking　of　the　officers　of　justice；　takes　notice　only　of　the　bailiffs；　the　peers　and　serjeants。　See　the　Institutions＇277＇　and　Beaumanoir＇278＇　concerning　the　manner　in　which　prosecutions　were　managed　in　those　days。

I　find　in　the　laws　of　James　II；　King　of　Majorca；＇279＇　a　creation　of　the　office　of　king's　attorney…general；　with　the　very　same　functions　as　are　exercised　at　present　by　the　officers　of　that　name　among　us。　It　is　manifest　that　this　office　was　not　instituted　till　we　had　changed　the　form　of　our　judiciary　proceedings。

37。　In　what　Manner　the　Institutions　of　St。　Louis　fell　into　Oblivion。　It　was　the　fate　of　the　Institutions　that　their　origin；　progress；　and　decline　were　comprised　within　a　very　short　period。

I　shall　make　a　few　reflections　upon　this　subject。　The　code　we　have　now　under　the　name　of　St。　Louis'　Institutions　was　never　designed　as　a　law　for　the　whole　kingdom；　though　such　a　design　is　mentioned　in　the　preface。　The　compilation　is　a　general　code；　which　determines　all　points　relating　to　civil　affairs；　to　the　disposal　of　property　by　will　or　otherwise；　the　dowries　and　privileges　of　women；　and　emoluments　and　privileges　of　fiefs；　with　the　affairs　in　relation　to　the　police；　&c。　Now；　to　give　a　general　body　of　civil　laws；　at　a　time　when　each　city；　town；　or　village；　had　its　customs；　was　attempting　to　subvert　in　one　moment　all　the　particular　laws　then　in　force　in　every　part　of　the　kingdom。　To　reduce　all　the　particular　customs　to　a　general　one　would　be　a　very　inconsiderate　thing；　even　at　present　when　our　princes　find　everywhere　the　most　passive　obedience。　But　if　it　be　true　that　we　ought　not　to　change　when　the　inconveniences　are　equal　to　the　advantages；　much　less　should　we　change　when　the　advantages　are　small　and　the　inconveniences　immense。　Now；　if　we　attentively　consider　the　situation　which　the　kingdom　was　in　at　that　time；　when　every　lord　was　puffed　up　with　the　notion　of　his　sovereignty　and　power；　we　shall　find　that　to　attempt　a　general　alteration　of　the　received　laws　and　customs　must　be　a　thing　that　could　never　enter　into　the　heads　of　those　who　were　then　in　the　administration。

What　I　have　been　saying　proves　likewise　that　this　code　of　institutions　was　not　confirmed　in　parliament　by　the　barons　and　magistrates　of　the　kingdom；　as　is　mentioned　in　a　manuscript　of　the　town…hall　of　Amiens；　quoted　by　M。　Du　Cange。＇280＇　We　find　in　other　manuscripts　that　this　code　was　given　by　St。　Louis　in　the　year　1270；　before　h