the spirit of laws-第124部分

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was　good　and　useful　in　the　spiritual　courts；　soon　perceived　nothing　else　but　the　abuses　which　had　crept　into　those　tribunals；　and　as　the　royal　jurisdiction　gained　ground　every　day；　it　grew　every　day　more　capable　of　correcting　those　abuses。　And；　indeed；　they　were　intolerable；　without　enumerating　them　I　shall　refer　the　reader　to　Beaumanoir；　to　Boutillier　and　to　the　ordinances　of　our　kings。＇295＇　I　shall　mention　only　two　in　which　the　public　interest　was　more　directly　concerned。　These　abuses　we　know　by　the　decrees　that　reformed　them；　they　had　been　introduced　in　the　times　of　the　darkest　ignorance；　and　upon　the　breaking　out　of　the　first　gleam　of　light；　they　vanished。　From　the　silence　of　the　clergy　it　may　be　presumed　that　they　forwarded　this　reformation：　which；　considering　the　nature　of　the　human　mind；　deserves　commendation。　Every　man　that　died　without　bequeathing　a　part　of　his　estate　to　the　church；　which　was　called　dying　〃without　confession；〃　was　deprived　of　the　sacrament　and　of　Christian　burial。　If　he　died　intestate；　his　relatives　were　obliged　to　prevail　upon　the　bishop　that　he　would；　jointly　with　them；　name　proper　arbiters　to　determine　what　sum　the　deceased　ought　to　have　given；　in　case　he　had　made　a　will。　People　could　not　lie　together　the　first　night　of　their　nuptials；　or　even　the　two　following　nights；　without　having　previously　purchased　leave；　these；　indeed；　were　the　best　three　nights　to　choose；　for　as　to　the　others；　they　were　not　worth　much。　All　this　was　redressed　by　the　parliament：　we　find　in　the　glossary　of　the　French　law；＇296＇　by　Ragau；　the　decree　which　it　published　against　the　Bishop　of　Amiens。＇297＇

I　return　to　the　beginning　of　my　chapter。　Whenever　we　observe　in　any　age　or　government　the　different　bodies　of　the　state　endeavouring　to　increase　their　authority；　and　to　take　particular　advantages　of　each　other；　we　should　be　often　mistaken　were　we　to　consider　their　encroachments　as　an　evident　mark　of　their　corruption。　Through　a　fatality　inseparable　from　human　nature；　moderation　in　great　men　is　very　rare：　and　as　it　is　always　much　easier　to　push　on　force　in　the　direction　in　which　it　moves　than　to　stop　its　movement；　so　in　the　superior　class　of　the　people；　it　is　less　difficult；　perhaps；　to　find　men　extremely　virtuous；　than　extremely　prudent。

The　human　mind　feels　such　an　exquisite　pleasure　in　the　exercise　of　power；　even　those　who　are　lovers　of　virtue　are　so　excessively　fond　of　themselves　that　there　is　no　man　so　happy　as　not　still　to　have　reason　to　mistrust　his　honest　intentions；　and；　indeed；　our　actions　depend　on　so　many　things　that　it　is　infinitely　easier　to　do　good；　than　to　do　it　well。

42。　The　Revival　of　the　Roman　Law；　and　the　Result　thereof。　Change　of　Tribunals。　Upon　the　discovery　of　Justinian's　digest　towards　the　year　1137；　the　Roman　law　seemed　to　rise　out　of　its　ashes。　Schools　were　then　established　in　Italy；　where　it　was　publicly　taught；　they　had　already　the　Justinian　code　and　the　Novell？。　I　mentioned　before　that　this　code　had　been　so　favourably　received　in　that　country　as　to　eclipse　the　law　of　the　Lombards。

The　Italian　doctors　brought　the　law　of　Justinian　into　France；　where　they　had　only　the　Theodosian　code；＇298＇　because　Justinian's　laws　were　not　made　till　after　the　settlement　of　the　Barbarians　in　Gaul。＇299＇　This　law　met　with　some　opposition：　but　it　stood　its　ground　notwithstanding　the　excommunications　of　the　popes；　who　supported　their　own　canons。＇300＇　St　Louis　endeavoured　to　bring　it　into　repute　by　the　translations　of　Justinian's　works；　made　according　to　his　orders；　which　are　still　in　manuscript　in　our　libraries；　and　I　have　already　observed　that　they　made　great　use　of　them　in　compiling　the　Institutions。　Philip　the　Fair　ordered　the　Laws　of　Justinian　to　be　taught　only　as　written　reason　in　those　provinces　of　France　that　were　governed　by　customs；　and　they　were　adopted　as　a　law　in　those　provinces　where　the　Roman　law　had　been　received。＇301＇

I　have　already　noticed　that　the　manner　of　proceeding　by　judicial　combat　required　very　little　knowledge　in　the　judges；　disputes　were　decided　according　to　the　usage　of　each　place；　and　to　a　few　simple　customs　received　by　tradition。　In　Beaumanoir's　time　there　were　two　different　ways　of　administering　justice；＇302＇　in　some　places　they　tried　by　peers；＇303＇　in　others　by　bailiffs：　in　following　the　former　way；　the　peers　gave　judgment　according　to　the　practice　of　their　court；　in　the　latter；　it　was　the　prud'hommes；　or　old　men；　who　pointed　out　this　same　practice　to　the　bailiffs。＇304＇　This　whole　proceeding　required　neither　learning；　capacity；　nor　study。　But　when　the　dark　code　of　the　Institutions　made　its　appearance；　when　the　Roman　law　was　translated　and　taught　in　public　schools；　when　a　certain　art　of　procedure　and　jurisprudence　began　to　be　formed；　when　practitioners　and　civilians　were　seen　to　rise；　the　peers　and　the　prud'hommes　were　no　longer　capable　of　judging：　the　peers　began　to　withdraw　from　the　lords'　tribunals；　and　the　lords　were　very　little　inclined　to　assemble　them；　especially　as　the　new　form　of　trial；　instead　of　being　a　solemn　proceeding；　agreeable　to　the　nobility　and　interesting　to　a　warlike　people；　had　become　a　course　of　pleading　which　they　neither　understood；　nor　cared　to　learn。　The　custom　of　trying　by　peers　began　to　be　less　used；＇305＇　that　of　trying；　by　bailiffs　to　be　more　so；　the　bailiffs　did　not　give　judgment　themselves；＇306＇　they　summed　up　the　evidence　and　pronounced　the　judgment　of　the　prud'hommes；　but　the　latter　being　no　longer　capable　of　judging；　the　bailiffs　themselves　gave　judgment。

This　was　effected　so　much　the　easier；　as　they　had　before　their　eyes　the　practice　of　the　ecclesiastic　courts；　the　canon　and　new　civil　law　both　concurred　alike　to　abolish　the　peers。

Thus　fell　the　usage　hitherto　constantly　observed　in　the　French　monarchy；　that　judgment　should　not　be　pronounced　by　a　single　person；　as　may　be　seen　in　the　Salic　laws；　the　capitularies；　and　in　the　first　law…writers　under　the　third　race。＇307＇　The　contrary　abuse　which　obtains　only　in　local　jurisdictions　has　been　moderated；　and　in　some　measure　redressed；　by　introducing　in　many　places　a　judge's　deputy；　whom　he　consults；　and　who　represents　the　ancient　prud'hommes　by　the　obligation　the　judge　is　under　of　taking　two　graduates　in　cases　that　deserve　a　corporal　punishment；　and；　in　fine；　it　has　become　of　no　effect　by　the　extreme　facility　of　appeals。

43。　The　same　Subject　continued。　Thus　there　was　no　law　to　prohibit　the　lords　from　holding　their　courts　themselves；　none　to　abolish　the　functions　of　their　peers；　none　to　ordain　the　creation　of　bailiffs；　none　to　give　them　the　power　of　judging。　All　this　was　effected　insensibly；　and　by　the　very　necessity　of　the　thing。　The　knowledge　of　the　Roman　law；　the　decrees　of　the　courts；　the　new　digest　of　the　customs；　required　a　study　of　which　the　nobility　and　illiterate　people　were　incapable。

The　only　ordinance　we　have　upon　this　subject　is　that　which　obliged　the　lords　to　choose　their　bailiffs　。from　among　the　laity。＇308＇　It　is　a　mistake　to　look　upon　this　as　a　law　of　their　creation；　for　it　says　no　such　thing。　Besides；　the　intention　of　the　legislator　is　determined　by　the　reasons　assigned　in　the　ordinance：　〃to　the　end　that　the　bailiffs　may　be　punished　for　their　prevarications；　it　is　necessary　they　be　taken　from　the　order　of　the　laity。〃　The　immunities　of　the　clergy　in　those　days　are　very　well　known。

We　must　not　imagine　that　the　privileges　which　the　nobility　formerly　enjoyed；　and　of　which　they　are　now　divested；　were　taken　from　them　as　usurpations；　no；　many　of　those　privileges　were　lost　through　neglect；　and　others　were　given　up　because；　as　various　changes　had　been　introduced　in　the　course　of　so　many　ages；　they　were　inconsistent　with　those　changes。

44。　Of　the　Proof　by　Witnesses。　The　judges；　who　had　no　other　rule　to　go　by　than　the　usages；　inquired　very　often　by　witnesses　into　every　cause　that　was　brought　before　them。

The　usage　of　judicial　combats　beginning　to　decline；　they　made　their　inquests　in　writing。　But　a　verbal　proof　committed　to　writing　is　never　more　than　a　verbal　proof；　so　that　this　only　increased　the　expenses　of　law　proceedings。　Regulations　were　then　made　which　rendered　most　of　those　inquests　useless；＇309＇　public　registers　were　established；　which　ascertained　most　facts；　as　nobility；　age；　legitimacy；　and　marriage。　Writing　is　a　witness　very　hard　to　corrupt；　the　customs　were　therefore　reduced　to　writing。　All　this　is　very　reasonable；　it　is　much　easier　to　go　and　see　in　the　baptismal　register　whether　Peter　is　the　son　of　Paul　than　to　prove　this　fact　by　a　tedious　inquest。　When　there　are　a　number　of　usages　in　a　country；　it　is　much　easier　to　write　them　all　down　in　a　code；　than　to　oblige　individuals　to　prove　every　usage。　At　length　the　famous　ordinance　was　made　which　prohibited　the　admitting　of　the　proof　by　witnesses　for　a　debt　exceeding　an　hundred　livres；　except　there　was　the　beginning　of　a　proof　in　writing。

45。　Of　the　Customs　of　France。　France；　as　we　have　already　observed；　was　governed　by　written　customs；　and　the　particular　usages　of　each　lordship　constituted　the　civil　law。　Every　lordship　had　its　civil　law；　according　to　Beaumanoir；＇310＇　and　so　particular　a　law；　that　this　author；　who　is　looked　upon　as　a　luminary；　and　a　very　great　luminary　of　those　times；　says　he　does　not　believe　that　throughout　the　whole　kingdom　there　were　two　lordships　entirely　governed　by　the　same　law。

This　prodigious　diversity　had　a　twofold　origin。　With　regard　to　the　first；　the　reader　may　recollect　what　has　been　already　said　concerning　it　in　the　chapter　of　local　customs：＇311＇　and　as　to　the　second；　we　meet　with　it　in　the　different　events　of　legal　duels；　it　being　natural　that　a　continual　series　of　fortuitous　cases　must　have　been　productive　of　new　usages。

These　customs　were　preserved　in　the　memory　of　old　men；　but　insensibly　laws　or　written　customs　were　formed。

1。　At　the　commencement　of　the　third　race；　the　kings　gave　not　only　particular　charters；　but　likewise　general　ones；　in　the　manner　above　explained；　such　are　the　institutions　of　Philip　Augustus　and　those　made　by　St。　Louis。　In　like　manner　the　great　vassals；　in　concurrence　with　the　lords　who　held　under　them；　granted　certain　charters　or　establishments；　according　to　particular　circumstances　at　the　assizes　of　their　duchies　or　counties；　such　were　the　assize　of　Godfrey；　Count　of　Brittany；　o