the spirit of laws-第25部分

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　side；　and　I　think　that　punishments　are　connected　with　the　nature　of　governments　when　I　behold　this　great　people　changing　in　this　respect　their　civil　laws；　in　proportion　as　they　altered　their　form　of　government。

The　regal　laws；　made　for　fugitives；　slaves；　and　vagabonds；　were　very　severe。　The　spirit　of　a　republic　would　have　required　that　the　decemvirs　should　not　have　inserted　those　laws　in　their　Twelve　Tables；　but　men　who　aimed　at　tyranny　were　far　from　conforming　to　a　republican　spirit。

Livy　says；＇40＇　in　relation　to　the　punishment　of　Metius　Suffetius；　dictator　of　Alba；　who　was　condemned　by　Tullius　Hostilius　to　be　fastened　to　two　chariots　drawn　by　horses；　and　torn　asunder；　that　this　was　the　first　and　last　punishment　in　which　the　remembrance　of　humanity　seemed　to　have　been　lost。　He　is　mistaken；　the　Twelve　Tables　are　full　of　very　cruel　laws。＇41＇

The　design　of　the　decemvirs　appears　more　conspicuous　in　the　capital　punishment　pronounced　against　libellers　and　poets。　This　is　not　agreeable　to　the　genius　of　a　republic；　where　the　people　like　to　see　the　great　men　humbled。　But　persons　who　aimed　at　the　subversion　of　liberty　were　afraid　of　writings　that　might　revive　its　spirit。＇42＇

After　the　expulsion　of　the　decemvirs；　almost　all　the　penal　laws　were　abolished。　It　is　true　they　were　not　expressly　repealed；　but　as　the　Porcian　law　had　ordained　that　no　citizen　of　Rome　should　be　put　to　death；　they　were　of　no　further　use。

This　is　exactly　the　time　to　which　we　may　refer　what　Livy　says＇43＇　of　the　Romans；　that　no　people　were　ever　fonder　of　moderation　in　punishments。

But　if　to　the　lenity　of　penal　laws　we　add　the　right　which　the　party　accused　had　of　withdrawing　before　judgment　was　pronounced；　we　shall　find　that　the　Romans　followed　the　spirit　which　I　have　observed　to　be　natural　to　a　republic。

Sulla；　who　confounded　tyranny；　anarchy；　and　liberty；　made　the　Cornelian　laws。　He　seemed　to　have　contrived　regulations　merely　with　a　view　to　create　new　crimes。　Thus　distinguishing　an　infinite　number　of　actions　by　the　name　of　murder；　he　found　murderers　in　all　parts；　and　by　a　practice　too　much　followed；　he　laid　snares；　sowed　thorns；　and　opened　precipices；　wheresoever　the　citizens　set　their　feet。

Almost　all　Sulla's　laws　contained　only　the　interdiction　of　fire　and　water。　To　this　C？sar　added　the　confiscation　of　goods＇44＇　because　the　rich；　by　preserving　their　estates　in　exile；　became　bolder　in　the　perpetration　of　crimes。

The　emperors；　having　established　a　military　government；　soon　found　that　it　was　as　terrible　to　the　prince　as　to　the　subject；　they　endeavoured　therefore　to　temper　it；　and　with　this　view　had　recourse　to　dignities；　and　to　the　respect　with　which　those　dignities　were　attended。

The　government　thus　drew　nearer　a　little　to　monarchy；　and　punishments　were　divided　into　three　classes：＇45＇　those　which　related　to　the　principal　persons　in　the　state；＇46＇　which　were　very　mild：　those　which　were　inflicted　on　persons　of　an　inferior　rank；＇47＇　and　were　more　severe；　and；　in　fine；　such　as　concerned　only　persons　of　the　lowest　condition；＇48＇　which　were　the　most　rigorous。

Maximinus；　that　fierce　and　stupid　prince；　increased　the　rigour　of　the　military　government　which　he　ought　to　have　softened。　The　senate　were　informed；　says　Capitolinus；＇49＇　that　some　had　been　crucified；　others　exposed　to　wild　beasts；　or　sewn　up　in　the　skins　of　beasts　lately　killed；　without　any　manner　of　regard　to　their　dignity。　It　seemed　as　if　he　wanted　to　exercise　the　military　discipline；　on　the　model　of　which　he　pretended　to　regulate　the　civil　administration。

In　The　Consideration　on　the　Rise　and　Declension　of　the　Roman　Grandeur＇50＇　we　find　in　what　manner　Constantine　changed　the　military　despotism　into　a　military　and　civil　government；　and　drew　nearer　to　monarchy。　There　we　may　trace　the　different　revolutions　of　this　state；　and　see　how　they　fell　from　rigour　to　indolence；　and　from　indolence　to　impunity。

16。　Of　the　just　Proportion　between　Punishments　and　Crimes。　It　is　an　essential　point；　that　there　should　be　a　certain　proportion　in　punishments；　because　it　is　essential　that　a　great　crime　should　be　avoided　rather　than　a　smaller；　and　that　which　is　more　pernicious　to　society　rather　than　that　which　is　less。

〃An　impostor；＇51＇　who　called　himself　Constantine　Ducas；　raised　a　great　insurrection　at　Constantinople。　He　was　taken　and　condemned　to　be　whipped；　but　upon　informing　against　several　persons　of　distinction；　he　was　sentenced　to　be　burned　as　a　calumniator。〃　It　is　very　extraordinary　that　they　should　thus　proportion　the　punishments　between　the　crime　of　high　treason　and　that　of　calumny。

This　puts　me　in　mind　of　a　saying　of　Charles　II；　King　of　Great　Britain。　He　saw　a　man　one　day　standing　in　the　pillory；　upon　which　he　asked　what　crime　the　man　had　committed。　He　was　answered；　〃Please　your　Majesty；　he　has　written　a　libel　against　your　ministers。〃　〃The　fool！〃　said　the　King；　〃why　did　he　not　write　against　me？　They　would　have　done　nothing　to　him。〃

〃Seventy　persons　having　conspired　against　the　Emperor　Basil；　he　ordered　them　to　be　whipped；　and　the　hair　of　their　heads　and　beards　to　be　burned。　A　stag；　one　day；　having　taken　hold　of　him　by　the　girdle　with　his　horn；　one　of　his　retinue　drew　his　sword；　cut　the　girdle；　and　saved　him；　upon　which　he　ordered　that　person's　head　to　be　cut　off；　for　having；〃　said　he；　〃drawn　his　sword　against　his　sovereign。〃＇52＇　Who　could　imagine　that　the　same　prince　could　ever　have　passed　two　such　different　judgments？

It　is　a　great　abuse　amongst　us　to　condemn　to　the　same　punishment　a　person　that　only　robs　on　the　highway　and　another　who　robs　and　murders。　Surely；　for　the　public　security；　some　difference　should　be　made　in　the　punishment。

In　China；　those　who　add　murder　to　robbery　are　cut　in　pieces：＇53＇　but　not　so　the　others；　to　this　difference　it　is　owing　that　though　they　rob　in　that　country　they　never　murder。

In　Russia；　where　the　punishment　of　robbery　and　murder　is　the　same；　they　always　murder。＇54＇　The　dead；　say　they；　tell　no　tales。

Where　there　is　no　difference　in　the　penalty；　there　should　be　some　in　the　expectation　of　pardon。　In　England　they　never　murder　on　the　highway；　because　robbers　have　some　hopes　of　transportation；　which　is　not　the　case　in　respect　to　those　that　commit　murder。

Letters　of　grace　are　of　excellent　use　in　moderate　governments。　This　power　which　the　prince　has　of　pardoning；　exercised　with　prudence；　is　capable　of　producing　admirable　effects。　The　principle　of　despotic　government；　which　neither　grants　nor　receives　any　pardon；　deprives　it　of　these　advantages。

17。　Of　the　Rack。　The　wickedness　of　mankind　makes　it　necessary　for　the　law　to　suppose　them　better　than　they　really　are。　Hence　the　deposition　of　two　witnesses　is　sufficient　in　the　punishment　of　all　crimes。　The　law　believes　them；　as　if　they　spoke　by　the　mouth　of　truth。　Thus　we　judge　that　every　child　conceived　in　wedlock　is　legitimate；　the　law　having　a　confidence　in　the　mother；　as　if　she　were　chastity　itself。　But　the　use　of　the　rack　against　criminals　cannot　be　defended　on　a　like　plea　of　necessity。

We　have　before　us　the　example　of　a　nation　blessed　with　an　excellent　civil　government；＇55＇　where　without　any　inconvenience　the　practice　of　racking　criminals　is　rejected。　It　is　not；　therefore；　in　its　own　nature　necessary。＇56＇

So　many　men　of　learning　and　genius　have　written　against　the　custom　of　torturing　criminals；　that　after　them　I　dare　not　presume　to　meddle　with　the　subject。　I　was　going　to　say　that　it　might　suit　despotic　states；　where　whatever　inspires　fear　is　the　fittest　spring　of　government。　I　was　going　to　say　that　the　slaves　among　the　Greeks　and　Romans　　but　nature　cries　out　aloud；　and　asserts　her　rights。

18。　Of　pecuniary　and　corporal　Punishments。　Our　ancestors；　the　Germans；　admitted　of　none　but　pecuniary　punishments。　Those　free　and　warlike　people　were　of　opinion　that　their　blood　ought　not　to　be　spilled　but　with　sword　in　hand。　On　the　contrary；　these　punishments　are　rejected　by　the　Japanese；＇57＇　under　pretence　that　the　rich　might　elude　them。　But　are　not　the　rich　afraid　of　being　stripped　of　their　property？　And　might　not　pecuniary　penalties　be　proportioned　to　people's　fortunes？　And；　in　fine；　might　not　infamy　be　added　to　those　punishments？

A　good　legislator　takes　a　just　medium；　he　ordains　neither　always　pecuniary；　nor　always　corporal　punishments。

19。　Of　the　Law　of　Retaliation。　The　use　of　the　law　of　retaliation＇58＇　is　very　frequent　in　despotic　countries；　where　they　are　fond　of　simple　laws。　Moderate　governments　admit　of　it　sometimes；　but　with　this　difference；　that　the　former　exercise　it　in　full　rigour；　whereas　among　the　latter　it　ever　receives　some　kind　of　limitation。

The　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables　admitted　two：　first；　it　never　condemned　to　retaliation；　but　when　the　plaintiff　could　not　be　satisfied　in　any　other　manner。＇59＇　Secondly；　after　condemnation　they　might　pay　damages　and　interest；＇60＇　and　then　the　corporal　was　changed　into　a　pecuniary　punishment。＇61＇

20。　Of　the　Punishment　of　Fathers　for　the　Crimes　of　their　Children。　In　China；　fathers　are　punished　for　the　crimes　of　their　children。　This　was　likewise　the　custom　of　Peru＇62＇　　a　custom　derived　from　the　notion　of　despotic　power。　Little　does　it　signify　to　say　that　in　China　the　father　is　punished　for　not　having　exerted　that　paternal　authority　which　nature　has　established；　and　the　laws　themselves　have　improved。　This　still　supposes　that　there　is　no　honour　among　the　Chinese。　Amongst　us；　parents　whose　children　are　condemned　by　the　laws　of　their　country；　and　children＇63＇　whose　parents　have　undergone　the　like　fate；　are　as　severely　punished　by　shame；　as　they　would　be　in　China　by　the　loss　of　their　lives。

21。　Of　the　Clemency　of　the　Prince。　Clemency　is　the　characteristic　of　monarchs。　In　republics；　whose　principle　is　virtue；　it　is　not　so　necessary。　In　despotic　governments；　where　fear　predominates；　it　is　less　customary；　because　the　great　men　are　to　be　restrained　by　examples　of　severity。　It　is　more　necessary　in　monarchies；　where　they　are　governed　by　honour；　which　frequently　requires　what　the　very　law　forbids。　Disgrace　is　here　equivalent　to　chastisement；　and　even　the　forms　of　justice　are　punishments。　This　is　because　particular　kinds　of　penalty　are　formed　by　shame；　which　on　every　side　invades　the　delinquent。

The　great　men　in　monarchies　are　so　heavily　punished　by　disgrace；