the spirit of laws-第75部分

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　to　reason；　for　it　could　have　no　other　effect　than　to　ease　luxury　of　the　weight　of　taxes。　This　would　be　depriving　itself　of　the　only　advantage　that　luxury　can　procure；　and　of　the　only　curb　which；　in　a　constitution　like　this；　it　is　capable　of　receiving。

12。　Of　the　Freedom　of　Commerce。　The　freedom　of　commerce　is　not　a　power　granted　to　the　merchants　to　do　what　they　please：　this　would　be　more　properly　its　slavery。　The　constraint　of　the　merchant　is　not　the　constraint　of　commerce。　It　is　in　the　freest　countries　that　the　merchant　finds　innumerable　obstacles；　and　he　is　never　less　crossed　by　laws　than　in　a　country　of　slaves。

England　prohibits　the　exportation　of　her　wool；　coals　must　be　brought　by　sea　to　the　capital；　no　horses；　except　geldings；　are　allowed　to　be　exported；　and　the　vessels　of　her　colonies　trading　to　Europe　must　take　in　water　in　England。＇9＇　The　English　constrain　the　merchant；　but　it　is　in　favour　of　commerce。

13。　What　it　is　that　destroys　this　Liberty。　Wherever　commerce　subsists；　customs　are　established。　Commerce　is　the　exportation　and　importation　of　merchandise；　with　a　view　to　the　advantage　of　the　state：　customs　are　a　certain　right　over　this　same　exportation　and　importation；　founded　also　on　the　advantage　of　the　state。　Hence　it　becomes　necessary　that　the　state　should　be　neutral　between　its　customs　and　its　commerce；　that　neither　of　these　two　interfere　with　each　other；　and　then　the　inhabitants　enjoy　a　free　commerce。

The　farming　of　the　customs　destroys　commerce　by　its　injustice　and　vexations；　as　well　as　by　the　excess　of　the　imposts：　but　independent　of　this；　it　destroys　it　even　more　by　the　difficulties　that　arise　from　it；　and　by　the　formalities　it　exacts。　In　England；　where　the　customs　are　managed　by　the　king's　officers；　business　is　negotiated　with　a　singular　dexterity：　one　word　of　writing　accomplishes　the　greatest　affairs。　The　merchant　needs　not　lose　an　infinite　deal　of　time；　he　has　no　occasion　for　a　particular　commissioner；　either　to　obviate　all　the　difficulties　of　the　farmers；　or　to　submit　to　them。

14。　The　Laws　of　Commerce　concerning　the　Confiscation　of　Merchandise。　The　Magna　Charta　of　England　forbids　the　seizing　and　confiscating；　in　case　of　war；　the　effects　of　foreign　merchants；　except　by　way　of　reprisals。　It　is　an　honour　to　the　English　nation　that　they　have　made　this　one　of　the　articles　of　their　liberty。

In　the　late　war　between　Spain　and　England；　the　former　made　a　law　which　punished　with　death　those　who　brought　English　merchandise　into　the　dominions　of　Spain；　and　the　same　penalty　on　those　who　carried　Spanish　merchandise　into　England。＇10＇　An　ordinance　like　this　cannot；　I　believe；　find　a　precedent　in　any　laws　but　those　of　Japan。　It　equally　shocks　humanity；　the　spirit　of　commerce；　and　the　harmony　which　ought　to　subsist　in　the　proportion　of　penalties；　it　confounds　all　our　ideas；　making　that　a　crime　against　the　state　which　is　only　a　violation　of　civil　polity。

15。　Of　seizing　the　Persons　of　Merchants。　Solon　made　a　law　that　the　Athenians　should　no　longer　seize　the　body　for　civil　debts。＇11＇　This　law　he　received　from　Egypt。　It　had　been　made　by　Boccoris；　and　renewed　by　Sesostris。＇12＇

This　law　is　extremely　good　with　respect　to　the　generality　of　civil　affairs；　but　there　is　sufficient　reason　for　its　not　being　observed　in　those　of　commerce。＇13＇　For　as　merchants　are　obliged　to　entrust　large　sums；　frequently　for　a　very　short　time；　and　to　pay　money　as　well　as　to　receive　it；　there　is　a　necessity　that　the　debtor　should　constantly　fulfil　his　engagements　at　the　time　prefixed；　and　hence　it　becomes　necessary　to　lay　a　constraint　on　his　person。

In　affairs　relating　to　common　civil　contracts；　the　law　ought　not　to　permit　the　seizure　of　the　person；　because　the　liberty　of　one　citizen　is　of　greater　importance　to　the　public　than　the　ease　or　prosperity　of　another。　But　in　conventions　derived　from　commerce；　the　law　ought　to　consider　the　public　prosperity　as　of　greater　importance　than　the　liberty　of　a　citizen；　which；　however；　does　not　hinder　the　restrictions　and　limitations　that　humanity　and　good　policy　demand。

16。　An　excellent　Law。　Admirable　is　that　law　of　Geneva　which　excludes　from　the　magistracy；　and　even　from　the　admittance　into　the　great　council；　the　children　of　those　who　have　lived　or　died　insolvent；　except　they　have　discharged　their　father's　debts。　It　has　this　effect：　it　creates　a　confidence　in　the　merchants；　in　the　magistrates；　and　in　the　city　itself。　There　the　credit　of　the　individual　has　still　all　the　weight　of　public　credit。

17。　A　Law　of　Rhodes。＇14＇　The　inhabitants　of　Rhodes　went　further。　Sextus　Empiricus　observes　that　among　those　people　a　son　could　not　be　excused　from　paying　his　father's　debts　by　renouncing　the　succession。　This　law　of　Rhodes　was　calculated　for　a　republic　founded　on　commerce。　Now　I　am　inclined　to　think　that　reasons　drawn　from　commerce　itself　should　make　this　limitation；　that　the　debts　contracted　by　the　father　since　the　son's　entering　into　commerce　should　not　affect　the　estate　or　property　acquired　by　the　latter。　A　merchant　ought　always　to　know　his　obligations；　and　to　square　his　conduct　by　his　circumstances　and　present　fortune。

18。　Of　the　Judges　of　Commerce。　Xenophon；　in　his　book　of　Revenues；　would　have　rewards　given　to　those　overseers　of　commerce　who　despatched　the　causes　brought　before　them　with　the　greatest　expedition。　He　was　sensible　of　the　need　of　our　modern　jurisdiction　of　a　consul。

The　affairs　of　commerce　are　but　little　susceptible　of　formalities。　They　are　the　actions　of　a　day；　and　are　every　day　followed　by　others　of　the　same　nature。　Hence　it　becomes　necessary　that　every　day　they　should　be　decided。　It　is　otherwise　with　those　actions　of　life　which　have　a　principal　influence　on　futurity；　but　rarely　happen。　We　seldom　marry　more　than　once；　deeds　and　wills　are　not　the　work　of　every　day；　we　are　but　once　of　age。

Plato＇15＇　says　that　in　a　city　where　there　is　no　maritime　commerce　there　ought　not　to　be　above　half　the　number　of　civil　laws：　this　is　very　true。　Commerce　brings　into　the　same　country　different　kinds　of　people；　it　introduces　also　a　great　number　of　contracts　and　species　of　wealth；　with　various　ways　of　acquiring　it。

Thus　in　a　trading　city　there　are　fewer　judges；　and　more　laws。

19。　That　a　Prince　ought　not　to　engage　himself　in　Commerce。　Theophilus；＇16＇　seeing　a　vessel　laden　with　merchandise　for　his　wife　Theodora；　ordered　it　to　be　burned。　〃I　am　emperor；〃　said　he；　〃and　you　make　me　the　master　of　a　galley。　By　what　means　shall　these　poor　men　gain　a　livelihood　if　we　take　their　trade　out　of　their　hands？〃　He　might　have　added。　Who　shall　set　bounds　to　us　if　we　monopolise　all　ourselves？　Who　shall　oblige　us　to　fulfil　our　engagements？　Our　courtiers　will　follow　our　example；　they　will　be　more　greedy　and　more　unjust　than　we：　the　people　have　some　confidence　in　our　justice；　they　will　have　none　in　our　opulence：　all　these　numerous　duties；　the　cause　of　their　wants；　are　certain　proofs　of　ours。

20。　The　same　Subject　continued。　When　the　Portuguese　and　Castilians　bore　sway　in　the　East　Indies；　commerce　had　such　opulent　branches　that　their　princes　did　not　fail　to　seize　them。　This　ruined　their　settlements　in　those　parts　of　the　world。

The　viceroy　of　Goa　granted　exclusive　privileges　to　particular　persons。　The　people　had　no　confidence　in　these　men；　and　the　commerce　declined；　by　the　perpetual　change　of　those　to　whom　it　was　entrusted；　nobody　took　care　to　improve　it；　or　to　leave　it　entire　to　his　successor。　In　short；　the　profit　centred　in　a　few　hands；　and　was　not　sufficiently　extended。

21。　Of　the　Commerce　of　the　Nobility　in　a　Monarchy。　In　a　monarchical　government；　it　is　contrary　to　the　spirit　of　commerce　that　any　of　the　nobility　should　be　merchants。　〃This；〃　said　the　Emperors　Honorius　and　Theodosius；＇17＇　〃would　be　pernicious　to　cities；　and　would　remove　the　facility　of　buying　and　selling　between　the　merchants　and　the　plebeians。〃

It　is　contrary　to　the　spirit　of　monarchy　to　admit　the　nobility　into　commerce。　The　custom　of　suffering　the　nobility　of　England　to　trade　is　one　of　those　things　which　has　there　mostly　contributed　to　weaken　the　monarchical　government。

22。　A　singular　Reflection。　Persons　struck　with　the　practice　of　some　states　imagine　that　in　France　they　ought　to　make　laws　to　engage　the　nobility　to　enter　into　commerce。　But　these　laws　would　be　the　means　of　destroying　the　nobility；　without　being　of　any　advantage　to　trade。　The　practice　of　this　country　is　extremely　wise；　merchants　are　not　nobles；　though　they　may　become　so。　They　have　the　hopes　of　obtaining　a　degree　of　nobility；　unattended　with　its　actual　inconveniences。　There　is　no　surer　way　of　being　advanced　above　their　profession　than　to　manage　it　well；　or　with　success；　the　consequence　of　which　is　generally　an　affluent　fortune。

Laws　which　oblige　every　one　to　continue　in　his　profession；　and　to　devolve　it　upon　his　children；　neither　are　nor　can　be　of　use　in　any　but　despotic　kingdoms；　where　nobody　either　can　or　ought　to　have　emulation。＇18＇

Let　none　say　that　every　one　will　succeed　better　in　his　profession　when　he　cannot　change　it　for　another：　I　say　that　a　person　will　succeed　best　when　those　who　have　excelled　hope　to　rise　to　another。

The　possibility　of　purchasing　honour　with　gold　encourages　many　merchants　to　put　themselves　in　circumstances　by　which　they　may　attain　it。　I　do　not　take　it　upon　me　to　examine　the　justice　of　thus　bartering　for　money　the　price　of　virtue。　There　are　governments　where　this　may　be　very　useful。

In　France　the　dignity　of　the　long　robe；　which　places　those　who　wear　it　between　the　great　nobility　and　the　people；　and　without　having　such　shining　honours　as　the　former；　has　all　their　privileges；　a　dignity　which；　while　this　body；　the　depositary　of　the　laws；　is　encircled　with　glory；　leaves　the　private　members　in　a　mediocrity　of　fortune；　a　dignity　in　which　there　are　no　other　means　of　distinction　but　by　a　superior　capacity　and　virtue；　yet　which　still　leaves　in　view　one　much　more　illustrious：　the　warlike　nobility；　likewise；　who　conceive　that；　whatever　degree　of　wealth　they　are　possessed　of；　they　may　still　increase　their　fortunes；　who　are　ashamed　of　augmenting；　if　they　begin　not　with　dissipating；　their　estates；　who　always　serve　their　prince　with　their　whole　capital　stock；　and　when　that　is　sunk　make　room　for　others；　who　follow　their　example；　who　take　the　field　that　th