the spirit of laws-第77部分

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things　of　their　own；　have　not　the　same　need　of　trading　among　themselves　as　with　those　of　a　different　climate。　The　commerce　of　Europe　was　therefore　formerly　less　extended　than　at　present。

This　does　not　at　all　contradict　what　I　have　said　of　our　commerce　to　the　Indies：　for　here　the　prodigious　difference　of　climate　destroys　all　relation　between　their　wants　and　ours。

5。　Other　Differences。　Commerce　is　sometimes　destroyed　by　conquerors；　sometimes　cramped　by　monarchs；　it　traverses　the　earth；　flies　from　the　places　where　it　is　oppressed；　and　stays　where　it　has　liberty　to　breath：　it　reigns　at　present　where　nothing　was　formerly　to　be　seen　but　deserts；　seas；　and　rocks；　and　where　it　once　reigned　now　there　are　only　deserts。

To　see　Colchis　in　its　present　situation；　which　is　no　more　than　a　vast　forest；　where　the　people　are　every　day　diminishing；　and　only　defend　their　liberty　to　sell　themselves　by　piecemeal　to　the　Turks　and　Persians；　one　could　never　imagine　that　this　country　had　ever；　in　the　time　of　the　Romans；　been　full　of　cities；　where　commerce　convened　all　the　nations　of　the　world。　We　find　no　monument　of　these　facts　in　the　country　itself；　there　are　no　traces　of　them；　except　in　Pliny＇3＇　and　Strabo。＇4＇

The　history　of　commerce　is　that　of　the　communication　of　people。　Their　numerous　defeats；　and　the　flux　and　reflux　of　populations　and　devastations；　here　form　the　most　extraordinary　events。

6。　Of　the　Commerce　of　the　Ancients。　The　immense　treasures　of　Semiramis；＇5＇　which　could　not　be　acquired　in　a　day；　give　us　reason　to　believe　that　the　Assyrians　themselves　had　pillaged　other　rich　nations；　as　other　nations　afterwards　pillaged　them。

The　effect　of　commerce　is　riches；　the　consequence　of　riches；　luxury；　and　that　of　luxury　the　perfection　of　arts。　We　find　that　the　arts　were　carried　to　great　perfection　in　the　time　of　Semiramis；＇6＇　which　is　a　sufficient　indication　that　a　considerable　commerce　was　then　established。

In　the　empires　of　Asia　there　was　a　great　commerce　of　luxury。　The　history　of　luxury　would　make　a　fine　part　of　that　of　commerce。　The　luxury　of　the　Persians　was　that　of　the　Medes；　as　the　luxury　of　the　Medes　was　that　of　the　Assyrians。

Great　revolutions　have　happened　in　Asia。　The　northeast　parts　of　Persia；　viz。；　Hyrcania；　Margiana；　Bactria；　&c。；　were　formerly　full　of　flourishing　cities；＇7＇　which　are　now　no　more；　and　the　north　of　this　empire；＇8＇　that　is；　the　isthmus　which　separates　the　Caspian　and　the　Euxine　Seas；　was　covered　with　cities　and　nations；　which　are　now　destroyed。

Eratosthenes　and　Aristobulus＇9＇　learned　from　Patroclus＇10＇　that　the　merchandise　of　India　passed　by　the　Oxus　into　the　sea　of　Pontus。　Marcus　Varro＇11＇　tells　us　that　at　the　time　when　Pompey　commanded　against　Mithridates；　they　were　informed　that　people　went　in　seven　days　from　India　to　the　country　of　the　Bactrians；　and　to　the　river　Icarus；　which　falls　into　the　Oxus；　that　by　this　method　they　were　able　to　bring　the　merchandise　of　India　across　the　Caspian　Sea；　and　to　enter　the　mouth　of　Cyrus；　whence　it　was　only　five　days'　passage　to　the　Phasis；　a　river　that　discharges　itself　into　the　Euxine　Sea。　There　is　no　doubt　but　it　was　by　the　nations　inhabiting　these　several　countries　that　the　great　empires　of　the　Assyrians；　Medes；　and　Persians　had　communication　with　the　most　distant　parts　of　the　east　and　west。

An　entire　stop　is　now　put　to　this　communication。　All　these　countries　have　been　laid　waste　by　the　Tartars；＇12＇　and　are　still　infested　by　this　destructive　nation。　The　Oxus　no　longer　runs　into　the　Caspian　Sea；　the　Tartars；　for　some　private　reasons；　have　changed　its　course；　and　it　now　loses　itself　in　the　barren　sands。＇13＇

The　Jaxartes；　which　was　formerly　a　barrier　between　the　polite　and　barbarous　nations；　has　had　its　course　turned　in　the　same　manner　by　the　Tartars；　and　it　no　longer　empties　itself　into　the　sea。＇14＇

Seleucus　Nicator　formed　the　project　of　joining　the　Euxine　to　the　Caspian　Sea。＇15＇　This　project；　which　would　have　greatly　facilitated　the　commerce　of　those　days；　vanished　at　his　death。＇16＇　We　are　not　certain　it　could　have　been　executed　in　the　isthmus　which　separates　the　two　seas。　This　country　is　at　present　very　little　known；　it　is　depopulated；　and　full　of　forests；　however；　water　is　not　wanting；　for　an　infinite　number　of　rivers　roll　into　it　from　Mount　Caucasus；　but　as　this　mountain　forms　the　north　of　the　isthmus；　and　extends　like　two　arms＇17＇　towards　the　south；　it　would　have　been　a　grand　obstacle　to　such　an　enterprise；　especially　in　those　times；　when　they　had　not　the　art　of　making　sluices。

It　may　be　imagined　that　Seleucus　would　have　joined　the　two　seas　in　the　very　place　where　Peter　I　has　since　joined　them；　that　is；　in　that　neck　of　land　where　the　Tanais　approaches　the　Volga；　but　the　north　of　the　Caspian　Sea　was　not　then　discovered。

While　the　empires　of　Asia　enjoyed　the　commerce　of　luxury；　the　Tyrians　had　the　commerce　of　economy；　which　they　extended　throughout　the　world。　Bochard　has　employed　the　first　book　of　his　Canaan　in　enumerating　all　the　colonies　which　they　sent　into　all　the　countries　bordering　upon　the　sea；　they　passed　the　pillars　of　Hercules；　and　made　establishments　on　the　coasts　of　the　ocean。＇18＇

In　those　times　their　pilots　were　obliged　to　follow　the　coasts；　which　were；　if　I　may　so　express　myself；　their　compass。　Voyages　were　long　and　painful。　The　laborious　voyage　of　Ulysses　has　been　the　fruitful　subject　of　the　finest　poem　in　the　world；　next　to　that　which　alone　has　the　preference。

The　little　knowledge　which　the　greatest　part　of　the　world　had　of　those　who　were　far　distant　from　them　favoured　the　nations　engaged　in　the　economical　commerce。　They　managed　trade　with　as　much　obscurity　as　they　pleased；　they　had　all　the　advantages　which　the　most　intelligent　nations　could　take　over　the　most　ignorant。

The　Egyptians　　a　people　who　by　their　religion　and　their　manners　were　averse　to　all　communication　with　strangers　　had　scarcely　at　that　time　any　foreign　trade。　They　enjoyed　a　fruitful　soil　and　great　plenty。　Their　country　was　the　Japan　of　those　times；　it　possessed　everything　within　itself。

So　little　jealous　were　these　people　of　commerce；　that　they　left　that　of　the　Red　Sea　to　all　the　petty　nations　that　had　any　harbours　in　it。　Here　they　suffered　the　Idumeans；　the　Syrians　and　the　Jews　to　have　fleets。　Solomon　employed　in　this　navigation　the　Tyrians；　who　knew　those　seas。＇19＇

Josephus＇20＇　says　that　this　nation；　being　entirely　employed　in　agriculture；　knew　little　of　navigation：　the　Jews；　therefore；　traded　only　occasionally　in　the　Red　Sea。　They　took　from　the　Idumeans　Eloth　and　Eziongeber；　from　whom　they　received　this　commerce；　they　lost　these　two　cities；　and　with　them　lost　this　commerce。

It　was　not　so　with　the　Phoenicians：　theirs　was　not　a　commerce　of　luxury；　nor　was　their　trade　owing　to　conquest；　their　frugality；　their　abilities；　their　industry；　their　perils；　and　the　hardships　they　suffered；　rendered　them　necessary　to　all　the　nations　of　the　world。

Before　Alexander；　the　people　bordering　on　the　Red　Sea　traded　only　in　this　sea；　and　in　that　of　Africa。　The　astonishment　which　filled　the　globe　at　the　discovery　of　the　Indian　Sea；　under　that　conqueror；　is　a　sufficient　proof　of　this。　I　have　observed＇21＇　that　bullion　was　always　carried　to　the　Indies；　and　never　any　brought　thence；　now　the　Jewish　fleets；　which　brought　gold　and　silver　by　the　way　of　the　Red　Sea；　returned　from　Africa；　and　not　from　the　Indies。＇22＇

Besides；　this　navigation　was　made　on　the　eastern　coast　of　Africa；　for　the　state　of　navigation　at　that　time　is　a　convincing　proof　that　they　did　not　sail　to　a　very　distant　shore。

I　am　not　ignorant　that　the　fleets　of　Solomon　and　Jehoshaphat　returned　only　every　three　years；　but　I　do　not　see　that　the　time　taken　up　in　the　voyage　is　any　proof　of　the　greatness　of　the　distance。

Pliny　and　Strabo　inform　us　that　the　junks　of　India　and　the　Red　Sea　were　twenty　days　in　performing　a　voyage　which　a　Greek　or　Roman　vessel　would　accomplish　in　seven。＇23＇　In　this　proportion；　a　voyage　of　one　year；　made　by　the　fleets　of　Greece　or　Rome；　would　take　very　nearly　three　when　performed　by　those　of　Solomon。　Two　ships　of　unequal　swiftness　do　not　perform　their　voyage　in　a　time　proportionate　to　their　swiftness。　Slowness　is　frequently　the　cause　of　much　greater　slowness。　When　it　becomes　necessary　to　follow　the　coast；　and　to　be　incessantly　in　a　different　position；　when　they　must　wait　for　a　fair　wind　to　get　out　of　a　gulf；　and　for　another　to　proceed；　a　good　sailor　takes　the　advantage　of　every　favourable　moment；　while　the　other　still　continues　in　a　difficult　situation；　and　waits　many　days　for　another　change。

The　slowness　of　the　Indian　vessels；　which　in　an　equal　time　could　make　but　the　third　of　the　way　of　those　of　the　Greeks　and　Romans；　may　be　explained　by　what　we　every　day　see　in　our　modern　navigation。　The　Indian　vessels；　which　were　built　with　a　kind　of　sea…rushes；　drew　less　water　than　those　of　Greece　and　Rome；　which　were　of　wood　and　joined　with　iron。

We　may　compare　these　Indian　vessels　to　those　at　present　made　use　of　in　ports　of　little　depth　of　water。　Such　are　those　of　Venice；　and　even　of　all　Italy　in　general。＇24＇　of　the　Baltic；　and　of　the　province　of　Holland。＇25＇　Their　ships；　which　ought　to　be　able　to　go　in　and　out　of　port；　are　built　round　and　broad　at　the　bottom；　while　those　of　other　nations；　who　have　good　harbours；　are　formed　to　sink　deep　into　the　water。　This　mechanism　renders　these　last…mentioned　vessels　able　to　sail　much　nearer　the　wind；　while　the　first　can　hardly　sail；　except　the　wind　be　nearly　in　the　poop。　A　ship　that　sinks　deep　into　the　water　sails　towards　the　same　side　with　almost　every　wind；　this　proceeds　from　the　resistance　which　the　vessel；　while　driven　by　the　wind；　meets　with　from　the　water；　from　which　it　receives　a　strong　support；　and　from　the　length　of　the　vessel　which　presents　its　side　to　the　wind；　while；　from　the　form　of　the　helm；　the　prow　is　turned　to　the　point　proposed；　so　that　she　can　sail　very　near　the　wind；　or；　in　other　words；　very　near　the　point　whence　the　wind　blows。　But　when　the　hull　is　round　and　broad　at　the　bottom；　and　consequently　draws　little　water；　it　no　longer　finds　this　steady　support；　the　wind　drives　the　vessel；　which　is　incapable　of　resistance；　and　can　run　them　but　with　a　small　variation　from　the　point　opposite　to　the　wind。　Whence　it　follows　that　broad…bottomed　v