the spirit of laws-第84部分

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　state。

The　design　of　these　colonies　is　to　trade　on　more　advantageous　conditions　than　could　otherwise　be　done　with　the　neighbouring　people；　with　whom　all　advantages　are　reciprocal。　It　has　been　established　that　the　metropolis；＇141＇　or　mother　country；　alone　shall　trade　in　the　colonies；　and　that　from　very　good　reason；　because　the　design　of　the　settlement　was　the　extension　of　commerce；　not　the　foundation　of　a　city　or　of　a　new　empire。

Thus　it　is　still　a　fundamental　law　of　Europe　that　all　commerce　with　a　foreign　colony　shall　be　regarded　as　a　mere　monopoly；　punishable　by　the　laws　of　the　country；　and　in　this　case　we　are　not　to　be　directed　by　the　laws　and　precedents　of　the　ancients；　which　are　not　at　all　applicable。＇142＇

It　is　likewise　acknowledged　that　a　commerce　established　between　the　mother　countries　does　not　include　a　permission　to　trade　in　the　colonies；　for　these　always　continue　in　a　state　of　prohibition。

The　disadvantage　of　a　colony　that　loses　the　liberty　of　commerce　is　visibly　compensated　by　the　protection　of　the　mother　country；　who　defends　it　by　her　arms；　or　supports　it　by　her　laws。

Hence　follows　a　third　law　of　Europe；　that　when　a　foreign　commerce　with　a　colony　is　prohibited；　it　is　not　lawful　to　trade　in　those　seas；　except　in　such　cases　as　are　excepted　by　treaty。　Nations　who　are；　with　respect　to　the　whole　globe；　what　individuals　are　in　a　state；　are　governed　like　the　latter　by　the　laws　of　nature；　and　by　particular　laws　of　their　own　making。　One　nation　may　resign　to　another　the　sea；　as　well　as　the　land。　The　Carthaginians　forbade　the　Romans　to　sail　beyond　certain　limits；＇143＇　as　the　Greeks　had　obliged　the　King　of　Persia　to　keep　as　far　distant　from　the　sea…coast　as　a　horse　could　gallop。＇144＇

The　great　distance　of　our　colonies　is　not　an　inconvenience　that　affects　their　safety；　for　if　the　mother　country；　on　whom　they　depend　for　their　defence；　is　remote；　no　less　remote　are　those　nations　who　rival　the　mother　country；　and　by　whom　they　may　be　afraid　of　being　conquered。

Besides；　this　distance　is　the　cause　that　those　who　are　established　there　cannot　conform　to　the　manner　of　living　in　a　climate　so　different　from　their　own；　they　are　obliged　therefore　to　draw　from　the　mother　country　all　the　conveniences　of　life。　The　Carthaginians；＇145＇　to　render　the　Sardinians　and　Corsicans　more　dependent；　forbade　their　planting；　sowing；　or　doing　anything　of　the　kind；　under　pain　of　death；　so　that　they　supplied　them　with　necessaries　from　Africa。

The　Europeans　have　compassed　the　same　thing；　without　having　recourse　to　such　severe　laws。　Our　colonies　in　the　Caribbean　islands　are　under　an　admirable　regulation　in　this　respect；　the　subject　of　their　commerce　is　what　we　neither　have　nor　can　produce；　and　they　want　what　is　the　subject　of　ours。

A　consequence　of　the　discovery　of　America　was　the　connecting　Asia　and　Africa　with　Europe；　it　furnished　materials　for　a　trade　with　that　vast　part　of　Asia　known　by　the　name　of　the　East　Indies。　Silver；　that　metal　so　useful　as　the　medium　of　commerce；　became　now　as　merchandise　the　basis　of　the　greatest　commerce　in　the　world。　In　fine；　the　navigation　to　Africa　became　necessary　in　order　to　furnish　us　with　men　to　labour　in　the　mines；　and　to　cultivate　the　lands　of　America。

Europe　has　arrived　at　so　high　a　degree　of　power　that　nothing　in　history　can　be　compared　with　it；　whether　we　consider　the　immensity　of　its　expenses；　the　grandeur　of　its　engagements；　the　number　of　its　troops；　and　the　regular　payments　even　of　those　that　are　least　serviceable；　and　which　are　kept　only　for　ostentation。

Father　Du　Halde　says＇146＇　that　the　interior　trade　of　China　is　much　greater　than　that　of　all　Europe。　That　might　be；　if　our　foreign　trade　did　not　augment　our　inland　commerce。　Europe　carries　on　the　trade　and　navigation　of　the　other　three　parts　of　the　world；　as　France；　England；　and　Holland　do　nearly　that　of　Europe。

22。　Of　the　Riches　which　Spain　drew　from　America。　If　Europe　has　derived　so　many　advantages　from　the　American　trade；　it　seems　natural　to　imagine　that　Spain　must　have　derived　much　greater。＇147＇　She　drew　from　the　newly…　discovered　world　so　prodigious　a　quantity　of　gold　and　silver；　that　all　we　had　before　could　not　be　compared　with　it。

But　（what　one　could　never　have　expected）　this　great　kingdom　was　everywhere　baffled　by　its　misfortunes。　Philip　II；　who　succeeded　Charles　V；　was　obliged　to　make　the　celebrated　bankruptcy　known　to　all　the　world。　There　never　was　a　prince　who　suffered　more　from　the　murmurs；　the　insolence；　and　the　revolt　of　troops　constantly　ill…paid。

From　that　time　the　monarchy　of　Spain　has　been　incessantly　declining。　This　has　been　owing　to　an　interior　and　physical　defect　in　the　nature　of　those　riches；　which　renders　them　vain　　a　defect　which　increases　every　day。

Gold　and　silver　are　either　a　fictitious　or　a　representative　wealth。　The　representative　signs　of　wealth　are　extremely　durable；　and；　in　their　own　nature；　but　little　subject　to　decay。　But　the　more　they　are　multiplied；　the　more　they　lose　their　value；　because　the　fewer　are　the　things　which　they　represent。

The　Spaniards；　after　the　conquest　of　Mexico　and　Peru；　abandoned　their　natural　riches；　in　pursuit　of　a　representative　wealth　which　daily　degraded　itself。　Gold　and　silver　were　extremely　scarce　in　Europe；　and　Spain　becoming　all　of　a　sudden　mistress　of　a　prodigious　quantity　of　these　metals；　conceived　hopes　to　which　she　had　never　before　aspired。　The　wealth　she　found　in　the　conquered　countries；　great　as　it　was；　did　not；　however；　equal　that　of　their　mines。　The　Indians　concealed　part　of　it；　and　besides；　these　people；　who　made　no　other　use　of　gold　and　silver　than　to　give　magnificence　to　the　temples　of　their　gods　and　to　the　palaces　of　their　kings；　sought　not　for　it　with　an　avarice　like　ours。　In　short；　they　had　not　the　secret　of　drawing　these　metals　from　every　mine；　but　only　from　those　in　which　the　separation　might　be　made　with　fire：　they　were　strangers　to　the　manner　of　making　use　of　mercury；　and　perhaps　to　mercury　itself。

However；　it　was　not　long　before　the　specie　of　Europe　was　doubled；　this　appeared　from　the　price　of　commodities；　which　everywhere　was　doubled。

The　Spaniards　raked　into　the　mines；　scooped　out　mountains；　invented　machines　to　draw　out　water；　to　break　the　ore；　and　separate　it；　and　as　they　sported　with　the　lives　of　the　Indians；　they　forced　them　to　labour　without　mercy。　The　specie　of　Europe　soon　doubled；　and　the　profit　of　Spain　diminished　in　the　same　proportion；　they　had　every　year　the　same　quantity　of　metal；　which　had　become　by　one…half　less　precious。

In　double　the　time　the　specie　still　doubled；　and　the　profit　still　diminished　another　half。

It　diminished　even　more　than　half：　let　us　see　in　what　manner。

To　extract　the　gold　from　the　mines；　to　give　it　the　requisite　preparations；　and　to　import　it　into　Europe；　must　be　attended　with　some　certain　expense。　I　will　suppose　this　to　be　as　1　to　64。　When　the　specie　was　once　doubled；　and　consequently　became　by　one…half　less　precious；　the　expense　was　as　2　to　64。　Thus　the　galoons　which　brought　to　Spain　the　same　quantity　of　gold；　brought　a　thing　which　really　was　of　less　value　by　one…half；　though　the　expenses　attending　it　had　been　twice　as　high。

If　we　proceed　doubling　and　doubling；　we　shall　find　in　this　progression　the　cause　of　the　impotency　of　the　wealth　of　Spain。

It　is　about　two　hundred　years　since　they　have　worked　their　Indian　mines。　I　suppose　the　quantity　of　specie　at　present　in　the　trading　world　is　to　that　before　the　discovery　of　the　Indies　as　32　is　to　1；　that　is；　it　has　been　doubled　five　times：　in　two　hundred　years　more　the　same　quantity　will　be　to　that　before　the　discovery　as　64　is　to　1；　that　is；　it　will　be　doubled　once　more。　Now；　at　present；　fifty　quintals　of　ore　yield　four；　five；　and　six　ounces　of　gold；＇148＇　and　when　it　yields　only　two；　the　miner　receives　no　more　from　it　than　his　expenses。　In　two　hundred　years；　when　the　miner　will　extract　only　four；　this　too　will　only　defray　his　charges。　There　will　then　be　but　little　profit　to　be　drawn　from　the　gold　mines。　The　same　reasoning　will　hold　good　of　silver；　except　that　the　working　of　the　silver　mines　is　a　little　more　advantageous　than　those　of　gold。

But；　if　mines　should　be　discovered　so　fruitful　as　to　give　a　much　greater　profit；　the　more　fruitful　they　may　be；　the　sooner　the　profit　will　cease。

The　Portuguese　in　Brazil　have　found　mines　of　gold　so　rich＇149＇　that　they　must　necessarily　very　soon　make　a　considerable　diminution　in　the　profits　of　those　of　Spain；　as　well　as　in　their

I　have　frequently　heard　people　deplore　the　blindness　of　the　court　of　France；　who　repulsed　Christopher　Columbus；　when　he　made　the　proposal　of　discovering　the　Indies。　Indeed　they　did；　though　perhaps　without　design；　an　act　of　the　greatest　wisdom。　Spain　has　behaved　like　the　foolish　king　who　desired　that　everything　he　touched　might　be　converted　into　gold；　and　who　was　obliged　to　beg　of　the　gods　to　put　an　end　to　his　misery。

The　companies　and　banks　established　in　many　nations　have　put　a　finishing　stroke　to　the　lowering　of　gold　and　silver　as　a　sign　of　representation　of　riches；　for　by　new　fictions　they　have　multiplied　in　such　a　manner　the　signs　of　wealth；　that　gold　and　silver　having　this　office　only　in　part　have　become　less　precious。

Thus　public　credit　serves　instead　of　mines；　and　diminishes　the　profit　which　the　Spaniards　drew　from　theirs。

True　it　is　that　the　Dutch　trade　to　the　East　Indies　has　increased；　in　some　measure；　the　value　of　the　Spanish　merchandise：　for　as　they　carry　bullion；　and　give　it　in　exchange　for　the　merchandise　of　the　East；　they　ease　the　Spaniards　of　part　of　a　commodity　which　in　Europe　abounds　too　much。

And　this　trade；　in　which　Spain　seems　to　be　only　indirectly　concerned；　is　as　advantageous　to　that　nation　as　to　those　who　are　directly　employed　in　carrying　it　on。

From　what　has　been　said　we　may　form　a　judgment　of　the　last　order　of　the　council　of　Spain；　which　prohibits　the　making　use　of　gold　and　silver　in　gildings；　and　other　superfluities；　a　decree　as　ridiculous　as　it　would　be　for　the　states　of　Holland　to　prohibit　the　consumption　of　spices。

My　reasoning　does　not　hold　good　against　all　mines；　those　of　Germany　and　Hungary；　which　produce　little　more　than　the　expense　of　working　them；　are　extremely　useful。　They　are　found　in　the　principal　state；　they　employ　many　thousand　m