the spirit of laws-第86部分

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！



106。　Ibid。

107。　He　lost　at　one　time　170；000　men；　yet　he　soon　recruited　his　armies。

108。　In　the　Considerations　on　the　Causes　of　the　Rise　and　Declension　of　the　Roman　Grandeur。

109。　As　Plato　has　observed。　Laws；　iv。

110。　Polybius；　v。

111。　See　the　Considerations　on　the　Causes　of　the　Rise　and　Declension　of　the　Roman　Grandeur。

112。　Ibid。

113。　Leg。　5；　§　2；　ff。　De　Captivis。

114。　Qu？　mercimoniis　publice　pr？fuit　　Leg。　1；　Cod。　de　natural。　liberis。

115。　Leg。　ad　barbaricum。　Cod。　qu？　res　exportari　non　debeant。

116。　Leg。　2；　Cod。　de　commerc。　et　mercator。

117。　Procopius；　War　of　the　Persians；　i。

118。　See　the　Considerations　on　the　Causes　of　the　Rise　and　Declension　of　the　Roman　Grandeur。

119。　Pliny；　vi。　28；　and　Strabo；　xvi。

120。　Ibid。

121。　The　caravans　of　Aleppo　and　Suez　carry　thither　annually　to　the　value　of　about　two　millions　of　livres；　and　as　much　more　clandestinely；　the　royal　vessel　of　Suez　carries　thither　also　two　millions。

122。　Book　ii；　p。　181；　ed。　1587。

123。　Book　vi。　23。

124。　He　says；　book　ii；　that　the　Romans　employed　a　hundred　and　twenty　ships　in　that　trade；　and；　in　book　xvii；　that　the　Grecian　kings　scarcely　employed　twenty。

125。　Book　i；　2。

126。　Book　i；　13。

127。　Our　best　maps　place　Peter's　tower　in　the　hundredth　degree　of　longitude；　and　about　the　fortieth　of　latitude。

128。　Suetonius；　Life　of　Claudius；　18；　Leg。　7。　Cod。　Theodos。　de　naviculariis。

129。　Book　viii；　tit。　4；　§　9。

130。　Toto　titulo；　ff。　de　incend；　ruin。　et　naufrag。；　Cod。　de　naufragiis；　Leg。　3；　ff。　ad　leg。　Cornel；　de　sicariis。

131。　Leg。　1；　Cod。　de　naufragiis。

132。　Book　xi；　tit。　3；　§　2。

133。　See　Aristotle；　Politics；　i。　9；　10。

134。　See　in　Marca　Hispanica；　the　constitutions　of　Aragon；　in　the　years　1228　and　1231；　and　in　Brussel；　the　agreement；　in　the　year　1206；　between　the　King；　the　Countess　of　Champagne；　and　Guy　of　Dampierre。

135。　Stow；　Survey　of　London；　iii；　p。　54。

136。　The　edict　passed　at　Baville；　4th　of　April；　1392。

137。　In　France　the　Jews　were　slaves　in　mortmain；　and　the　lords　their　successors。　Mr。　Brussel　mentions　an　agreement　made　in　the　year　1206；　between　the　King　and　Thibaut；　Count　of　Champagne；　by　which　it　was　agreed　that　the　Jews　of　the　one　should　not　lend　in　the　lands　of　the　other。

138。　It　is　known　that　under　Philip　Augustus　and　Philip　the　Long；　the　Jews　who　were　chased　from　France　took　refuge　in　Lombardy；　and　that　there　they　gave　to　foreign　merchants　and　travellers　secret　letters；　drawn　upon　those　to　whom　they　had　entrusted　their　effects　in　France；　which　were　accepted。

139。　See　Nov。　83　of　the　Emperor　Leo；　which　revokes　the　law　of　Basil　his　father。　This　law　of　Basil　is　in　Hermenopulus；　under　the　name　of　Leo；　iii；　tit。　7；　§　27。

140。　See　the　account　of　Pirard；　part　II；　15。

141。　This；　in　the　language　of　the　ancients；　is　the　state　which　founded　the　colony。

142。　Except　the　Carthaginians；　as　we　see　by　the　treaty　which　put　an　end　to　the　first　Punic　war。

143。　Polybius；　iii。

144。　The　King　of　Persia　obliged　himself　by　treaty　not　to　sail　with　any　vessel　of　war　beyond　the　Cyanean　rocks　and　the　Chelidonean　isles。　　Plutarch；　Cimon。

145。　Aristotle；　Of　Wonderful　Things；　Livy；　dec。　2；　vii。

146。　Book　ii；　p。　170。

147。　This　has　been　already　shown　in　a　small　treatise　written　by　the　author　about　twenty　years　ago；　which　has　been　almost　entirely　incorporated　in　the　present　work。

148。　See　Frezier；　Voyages。

149。　According　to　Lord　Anson；　Europe　receives　every　year　from　Brazil　two　millions　sterling　in　gold；　which　is　found　in　sand　at　the　foot　of　the　mountains；　or　in　the　beds　of　rivers。　When　I　wrote　the　little　treatise　mentioned　in　the　first　note　of　this　chapter；　the　returns　from　Brazil　were　far　from　being　so　considerable　an　item　as　they　are　at　present。




Book　XXII。　Of　Laws　in　Relation　to　the　Use　of　Money

1。　The　Reason　of　the　Use　of　Money。　People　who　have　little　merchandise；　as　savages；　and　among　civilised　nations　those　who　have　only　two　or　three　species；　trade　by　exchange。　Thus　the　caravans　of　Moors　that　go　to　Timbuctoo；　in　the　heart　of　Africa；　have　no　need　of　money；　for　they　exchange　their　salt　for　gold。　The　Moor　puts　his　salt　in　a　heap；　and　the　Negro　his　dust　in　another；　if　there　is　not　gold　enough；　the　Moor　takes　away　some　of　his　salt；　or　the　Negro　adds　more　gold；　till　both　parties　are　agreed。

But　when　a　nation　traffics　with　a　great　variety　of　merchandise；　money　becomes　necessary；　because　a　metal　easily　carried　from　place　to　place　saves　the　great　expenses　which　people　would　be　obliged　to　be　at　if　they　always　proceeded　by　exchange。

As　all　nations　have　reciprocal　wants；　it　frequently　happens　that　one　is　desirous　of　a　large　quantity　of　the　other's　merchandise；　when　the　latter　will　have　very　little　of　theirs；　though　with　respect　to　another　nation　the　case　is　directly　opposite。　But　when　nations　have　money；　and　proceed　by　buying　and　selling；　those　who　take　most　merchandise　pay　the　balance　in　specie。　And　there　is　this　difference；　that；　in　the　case　of　buying；　the　trade　carried　on　is　in　proportion　to　the　wants　of　the　nation　that　has　the　greatest　demands；　while　in　bartering；　the　trade　is　only　according　to　the　wants　of　the　nation　whose　demands　are　the　fewest；　without　which　the　latter　would　be　under　an　impossibility　of　balancing　its　accounts。

2。　Of　the　Nature　of　Money。　Money　is　a　sign　which　represents　the　value　of　all　merchandise。　Metal　is　taken　for　this　sign；　as　being　durable；＇1＇　because　it　is　consumed　but　little　by　use；　and　because；　without　being　destroyed；　it　is　capable　of　many　divisions。　A　precious　metal　has　been　chosen　as　a　sign；　as　being　most　portable。　A　metal　is　most　proper　for　a　common　measure；　because　it　can　be　easily　reduced　to　the　same　standard。　Every　state　fixes　upon　it　a　particular　impression；　to　the　end　that　the　form　may　correspond　with　the　standard　and　the　weight；　and　that　both　may　be　known　by　inspection　only。　The　Athenians；　not　having　the　use　of　metals；　made　use　of　oxen；＇2＇　and　the　Romans　of　sheep；　but　one　ox　is　not　the　same　as　another　ox　in　the　manner　that　one　piece　of　metal　may　be　the　same　as　another。

A　specie　is　the　sign　of　the　value　of　merchandise；　paper　is　the　sign　of　the　value　of　specie；　and　when　it　is　of　the　right　sort；　it　represents　this　value　in　such　a　manner　that　as　to　the　effects　produced　by　it　there　is　not　the　least　difference。

In　the　same　manner；　as　money　is　the　sign　and　representative　of　a　thing；　everything　is　a　sign　and　representative　of　money；　and　the　state　is　in　a　prosperous　condition　when　on　the　one　hand　money　perfectly　represents　all　things；　and　on　the　other　all　things　perfectly　represent　money；　and　are　reciprocally　the　sign　of　each　other；　that　is；　when　they　have　such　a　relative　value　that　we　may　have　the　one　as　soon　as　we　have　the　other。　This　never　happens　in　any　other　than　a　moderate　government；　nor　does　it　always　happen　there；　for　example；　if　the　laws　favour　the　dishonest　debtor；　his　effects　are　no　longer　a　representative　or　sign　of　money。　With　regard　to　a　despotic　government；　it　would　be　a　prodigy　did　things　there　represent　their　sign。　Tyranny　and　distrust　make　every　one　bury　their　specie；＇3＇　things　therefore　are　not　there　the　representative　of　money。

Legislators　have　sometimes　had　the　art　not　only　to　make　things　in　their　own　nature　the　representative　of　specie；　but　to　convert　them　even　into　specie；　like　the　current　coin。　C？sar；　when　he　was　dictator；　permitted　debtors　to　give　their　lands　in　payment　to　their　creditors；　at　the　price　they　were　worth　before　the　civil　war。＇4＇　Tiberius　ordered　that　those　who　desired　specie　should　have　it　from　the　public　treasury　on　binding　over　their　land　to　double　the　value＇5＇　Under　C？sar　the　lands　were　the　money　which　paid　all　debts；　under　Tiberius　ten　thousand　sesterces　in　land　became　as　current　money　equal　to　five　thousand　sesterces　in　silver。　The　Magna　Charta　of　England　provides　against　the　seizing　of　the　lands　or　revenues　of　a　debtor；　when　his　movable　or　personal　goods　are　sufficient　to　pay；　and　he　is　willing　to　give　them　up　to　his　creditors；　thus　all　the　goods　of　an　Englishman　represent　money。

The　laws　of　the　Germans　constituted　money　a　satisfaction　for　the　injuries　that　were　committed；　and　for　the　sufferings　due　to　guilt。　But　as　there　was　but　very　little　specie　in　the　country；　they　again　constituted　this　money　to　be　paid　in　goods　or　chattels。　This　we　find　appointed　in　a　Saxon　law；　with　certain　regulations　suitable　to　the　ease　and　convenience　of　the　several　ranks　of　people。　At　first　the　law　declared　the　value　of　a　sou　in　cattle；＇6＇　the　sou　of　two　tremises　answered　to　an　ox　of　twelve　months；　or　to　a　ewe　with　her　lamb；　that　of　three　tremises　was　worth　an　ox　of　sixteen　months。　With　these　people　money　became　cattle；　goods；　and　merchandise；　and　these　again　became　money。

Money　is　not　only　a　sign　of　things；　it　is　also　a　sign　and　representative　of　money；　as　we　shall　see　in　the　chapter　on　exchange。

3。　Of　ideal　Money。　There　is　both　real　and　ideal　money。　Civilised　nations　generally　make　use　of　ideal　money　only；　because　they　have　converted　their　real　money　into　ideal。　At　first　their　real　money　was　some　metal　of　a　certain　weight　and　standard；　but　soon　dishonesty　or　want　made　them　retrench　a　part　of　the　metal　from　every　piece　of　money；　to　which　they　left　the　same　name；　for　example；　from　a　livre　at　a　pound　weight　they　took　half　the　silver；　and　still　continued　to　call　it　a　livre；　the　piece　which　was　the　twentieth　part　of　a　pound　of　silver　they　continued　to　call　a　sou；　though　it　is　no　more　the　twentieth　part　of　this　pound　of　silver。　By　this　method　the　livre　is　an　ideal　livre；　and　the　sou　an　ideal　sou。　Thus　of　the　other　subdivisions；　and　so　far　may　this　be　carried　that　what　we　call　a　livre　shall　be　only　a　small　part　of　the　original　livre　or　pound；　which　renders　it　still　more　ideal。　It　may　even　happen　that　we　have　no　piece　of　money　of　the　precise　value　of　a　livre；　nor　any　piece　exactly　with　a　sou；　then　the　livre　and　the　sou　will　be　purely　ideal。　They　may　give　to　any　piece　of　money　the　denomination　of　as　many　livres　and　as　many　sous　as　they　please；　the　variation　may　be　continual；　because　it　is　as　easy　to　give　another　name　to　a　thing　as　it　is　difficult　to　change　the　thing　itself。

To　take　away　the　source　of　this　abuse；　it　would　be　an　excellent　law　for　all　countries　who　are　desirous　of　making　commerce　flour