the spirit of laws-第87部分

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To　take　away　the　source　of　this　abuse；　it　would　be　an　excellent　law　for　all　countries　who　are　desirous　of　making　commerce　flourish　to　ordain　that　none　but　real　money　should　be　current；　and　to　prevent　any　methods　from　being　taken　to　render　it　ideal。

Nothing　ought　to　be　so　exempt　from　variation　as　that　which　is　the　common　measure　of　all。　Trade　is　in　its　own　nature　extremely　uncertain；　and　it　is　a　great　evil　to　add　a　new　uncertainty　to　that　which　is　founded　on　the　nature　of　the　thing。

4。　Of　the　Quantity　of　Gold　and　Silver。　While　civilised　nations　are　the　mistresses　of　the　world；　gold　and　silver；　whether　they　draw　it　from　among　themselves；　or　fetch　it　from　the　mines；　must　increase　every　day。　On　the　contrary；　it　diminishes　when　barbarous　nations　prevail。　We　know　how　great　was　the　scarcity　of　these　metals　when　the　Goths　and　Vandals　on　the　one　side；　and　on　the　other　the　Saracens　and　Tartars；　broke　in　like　a　torrent　on　the　civilised　world。

5。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　bullion　drawn　from　the　American　mines；　imported　into　Europe；　and　thence　sent　to　the　East；　has　greatly　promoted　the　navigation　of　the　European　nations；　for　it　is　merchandise　which　Europe　receives　in　exchange　from　America；　and　which　she　sends　in　exchange　to　the　Indies。　A　prodigious　quantity　of　gold　and　silver　is　therefore　an　advantage；　when　we　consider　these　metals　as　merchandise；　but　it　is　otherwise　when　we　consider　them　as　a　sign；　because　their　abundance　gives　an　alloy　to　their　quality　as　a　sign；　which　is　chiefly　founded　on　their　scarcity。

Before　the　first　Punic　war；＇7＇　copper　was　to　silver　as　960　to　1；＇8＇　it　is　at　present　nearly　as　731/2　to　1。　When　the　proportion　shall　be　as　it　was　formerly；　silver　will　better　perform　its　office　as　a　sign。

6。　The　Reason　why　Interest　was　lowered　one…half　after　the　Conquest　of　the　Indies。　Garcilasso　informs　us＇9＇　that　in　Spain　after　the　conquest　of　the　Indies　the　interest；　which　was　at　ten　per　cent；　fell　to　five。　This　was　a　necessary　consequence。　A　great　quantity　of　specie　being　all　of　a　sudden　brought　into　Europe；　much　fewer　persons　had　need　of　money。　The　price　of　all　things　increased；　while　the　value　of　money　diminished；　the　proportion　was　then　broken；　and　all　the　old　debts　were　discharged。　We　may　recollect　the　time　of　the　System；＇10＇　when　everything　was　at　a　high　price　except　specie。　Those　who　had　money　after　the　conquest　of　the　Indies　were　obliged　to　lower　the　price　or　hire　of　their　merchandise；　that　is；　in　other　words；　their　interest。

From　this　time　they　were　unable　to　bring　interest　to　its　ancient　standard；　because　the　quantity　of　specie　brought　to　Europe　has　been　annually　increasing。　Besides；　as　the　public　funds　of　some　states；　founded　on　riches　procured　by　commerce；　gave　but　a　very　small　interest；　it　became　necessary　for　the　contracts　of　individuals　to　be　regulated　by　these。　In　short；　the　course　of　exchange　having　rendered　the　conveying　of　specie　from　one　country　to　another　remarkably　easy；　money　cannot　be　scarce　in　a　place　where　they　may　be　so　readily　supplied　with　it　by　those　who　have　it　in　plenty。

7。　How　the　Price　of　Things　is　fixed　in　the　Variation　of　the　Sign　of　Riches。　Money　is　the　price　of　merchandise　or　manufactures。　But　how　shall　we　fix　this　price？　or；　in　other　words；　by　what　piece　of　money　is　everything　to　be　represented？

If　we　compare　the　mass　of　gold　and　silver　in　the　whole　world　with　the　quantity　of　merchandise　therein　contained；　it　is　certain　that　every　commodity　or　merchandise　in　particular　may　be　compared　to　a　certain　portion　of　the　entire　mass　of　gold　and　silver。　As　the　total　of　the　one　is　to　the　total　of　the　other；　so　part　of　the　one　will　be　to　part　of　the　other。　Let　us　suppose　that　there　is　only　one　commodity　or　merchandise　in　the　world；　or　only　one　to　be　purchased；　and　that　this　is　divisible　like　money；　a　part　of　this　merchandise　will　answer　to　a　part　of　the　mass　of　gold　and　silver；　the　half　of　the　total　of　the　one　to　the　half　of　the　total　of　the　other；　the　tenth；　the　hundredth；　the　thousandth　part　of　the　one；　to　the　tenth；　the　hundredth；　the　thousandth　part　of　the　other。　But　as　that　which　constitutes　property　among　mankind　is　not　all　at　once　in　trade；　and　as　the　metals　or　money　which　are　the　sign　of　property　are　not　all　in　trade　at　the　same　time；　the　price　is　fixed　in　the　compound　ratio　of　the　total　of　things　with　the　total　of　signs；　and　that　of　the　total　of　things　in　trade　with　the　total　of　signs　in　trade　also；　and　as　the　things　which　are　not　in　trade　to…day　may　be　in　trade　to…morrow；　and　the　signs　not　now　in　trade　may　enter　into　trade　at　the　same　time；　the　establishment　of　the　price　of　things　fundamentally　depends　on　the　proportion　of　the　total　of　things　to　the　total　of　signs。

Thus　the　prince　or　the　magistrate　can　no　more　ascertain　the　value　of　merchandise　than　he　can　establish　by　a　decree　that　the　relation　1　has　to　10　is　equal　to　that　of　1　to　20。　Julian's　lowering　the　price　of　provisions　at　Antioch　was　the　cause　of　a　most　terrible　famine。＇11＇

8。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　Negroes　on　the　coast　of　Africa　have　a　sign　of　value　without　money。　It　is　a　sign　merely　ideal；　founded　on　the　degree　of　esteem　which　they　fix　in　their　minds　for　all　merchandise；　in　proportion　to　the　need　they　have　of　it。　A　certain　commodity　or　merchandise　is　worth　three　ma…coutes；　another；　six　macoutes；　another；　ten　macoutes；　that　is；　as　if　they　said　simply　three；　six；　and　ten。　The　price　is　formed　by　a　comparison　of　all　merchandise　with　each　other。　They　have　therefore　no　particular　money；　but　each　kind　of　merchandise　is　money　to　the　other。

Let　us　for　a　moment　transfer　to　ourselves　this　manner　of　valuing　things；　and　join　it　with　ours：　all　the　merchandise　and　goods　in　the　world；　or　else　all　the　merchandise　or　manufactures　of　a　state；　particularly　considered　as　separate　from　all　others；　would　be　worth　a　certain　number　of　macoutes；　and；　dividing　the　money　of　this　state　into　as　many　parts　as　there　are　macoutes；　one　part　of　this　division　of　money　will　be　the　sign　of　a　macoute。

If　we　suppose　the　quantity　of　specie　in　a　state　doubled；　it　will　be　necessary　to　double　the　specie　in　the　macoute；　but　if　in　doubling　the　specie　you　double　also　the　macoute；　the　proportion　will　remain　the　same　as　before　the　doubling　of　either。

If；　since　the　discovery　of　the　Indies；　gold　and　silver　have　increased　in　Europe　in　the　proportion　of　1　to　20；　the　price　of　provisions　and　merchandise　must　have　been　enhanced　in　the　proportion　of　1　to　20。　But　if；　on　the　other　hand；　the　quantity　of　merchandise　has　increased　as　1　to　2　　it　necessarily　follows　that　the　price　of　this　merchandise　and　provisions；　having　been　raised　in　proportion　of　1　to　20；　and　fallen　in　proportion　of　1　to　2　　it　necessarily　follows；　I　say；　that　the　proportion　is　only　as　1　to　10。

The　quantity　of　goods　and　merchandise　increases　by　an　augmentation　of　commerce；　the　augmentation　of　commerce　by　an　augmentation　of　the　specie　which　successively　arrives；　and　by　new　communications　with　freshly…discovered　countries　and　seas；　which　furnish　us　with　new　commodities　and　new　merchandise。

9。　Of　the　relative　Scarcity　of　Gold　and　Silver。　Besides　the　positive　plenty　and　scarcity　of　gold　and　silver；　there　is　still　a　relative　abundance　and　a　relative　scarcity　of　one　of　these　metals　compared　with　the　other。

The　avaricious　hoard　up　their　gold　and　silver；　for　as　they　do　not　care　to　spend；　they　are　fond　of　signs　that　are　not　subject　to　decay。　They　prefer　gold　to　silver；　because　as　they　are　always　afraid　of　losing；　they　can　best　conceal　that　which　takes　up　the　least　room。　Gold　therefore　disappears　when　there　is　plenty　of　silver；　by　reason　that　every　one　has　some　to　conceal；　it　appears　again　when　silver　is　scarce；　because　they　are　obliged　to　draw　it　from　its　confinement。

It　is　then　a　rule　that　gold　is　common　when　silver　is　scarce；　and　gold　is　scarce　when　silver　is　common。　This　lets　us　see　the　difference　between　their　relative　and　their　real　abundance　and　scarcity；　of　which　I　shall　presently　speak　more　at　large。

10。　Of　Exchange。　The　relative　abundance　and　scarcity　of　specie　in　different　countries　forms　what　is　called　the　course　of　exchange。

Exchange　is　a　fixing　of　the　actual　and　momentary　value　of　money。

Silver　as　a　metal　has　value　like　all　other　merchandise；　and　an　additional　value　as　it　is　capable　of　becoming　the　sign　of　other　merchandise。　If　it　were　no　more　than　mere　merchandise；　it　would　lose　much　of　its　value。

Silver；　as　money；　has　a　value；　which　the　prince　in　some　respects　can　fix；　and　in　others　cannot。

1。　The　prince　establishes　a　proportion　between　a　quantity　of　silver　as　metal；　and　the　same　quantity　as　money；　2。　He　fixes　the　proportion　between　the　several　metals　made　use　of　as　money。　3。　He　establishes　the　weight　and　standard　of　every　piece　of　money。　In　fine；　4；　he　gives　to　every　piece　that　ideal　value　of　which　I　have　spoken。　I　shall　call　the　value　of　money　in　these　four　respects　its　positive　value；　because　it　may　be　fixed　by　law。

The　coin　of　every　state　has；　besides　this；　a　relative　value；　as　it　is　compared　with　the　money　of　other　countries。　This　relative　value　is　established　by　the　exchange；　and　greatly　depends　on　its　positive　value。　It　is　fixed　by　the　general　opinion　of　the　merchants；　never　by　the　decrees　of　the　prince；　because　it　is　subject　to　incessant　variations；　and　depends　on　a　thousand　accidents。

The　several　nations；　in　fixing　this　relative　value；　are　chiefly　guided　by　that　which　has　the　greatest　quantity　of　specie。　If　she　has　as　much　specie　as　all　the　others　together；　it　is　then　most　proper　for　the　others　to　regulate　theirs　by　her　standard：　and　the　regulation　between　all　the　others　will　pretty　nearly　agree　with　the　regulation　made　with　this　principal　nation。

In　the　actual　state　of　the　globe；　Holland　is　the　nation　we　are　speaking　of。　Let　us　examine　the　course　of　exchange　with　relation　to　her。

They　have　in　Holland　a　piece　of　money　called　a　florin；　worth　twenty　sous；　or　forty　half…sous　or　gros。　But；　to　render　our　ideas　as　simple　as　possible；　let　us　imagine　that　they　have　not　any　such　piece　of　money　in　Holland　as　a　florin；　and　that　they　have　no　other　but　the　gros：　a　man　who　should　have　a　thousand　florins　should　have　forty　thousand　gros；　and　so　of　the　rest。　Now　the　exchange　with　Holland　is　determined　by　our　knowing　how　many　gros　every　piece　of　money　in