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and　will　they　be　content　simply　to　know　how　such　things　come　into
existence？　But　if　this　was　his　mode　of　describing　those　who　meddle
with　such　matters　as　these；　he　himself　never　wearied　of　discussing
human　topics。　What　is　piety？　what　is　impiety？　What　is　the　beautiful？
what　the　ugly？　What　the　noble？　what　the　base？　What　are　meant　by　just
and　unjust？　what　by　sobriety　and　madness？　what　by　courage　and
cowardice？　What　is　a　state？　what　is　a　statesman？　what　is　a　ruler　over
men？　what　is　a　ruling　character？　and　other　like　problems；　the
knowledge　of　which；　as　he　put　it；　conferred　a　patent　of　nobility　on
the　possessor；＇16＇　whereas　those　who　lacked　the　knowledge　might
deservedly　be　stigmatised　as　slaves。

＇16＇　Or；　〃was　distinctive　of　the　'beautiful　and　good。'〃　For　the　phrase
　　　　see　below；　ii。　2　et　passim。

Now；　in　so　far　as　the　opinions　of　Socrates　were　unknown　to　the　world
at　large；　it　is　not　surprising　that　the　court　should　draw　false
conclusions　respecting　them；　but　that　facts　patent　to　all　should　have
been　ignored　is　indeed　astonishing。

At　one　time　Socrates　was　a　member　of　the　Council；＇17＇　he　had　taken　the
senatorial　oath；　and　sworn　〃as　a　member　of　that　house　to　act　in
conformity　with　the　laws。〃　It　was　thus　he　chanced　to　be　President　of
the　Popular　Assembly；＇18＇　when　that　body　was　seized　with　a　desire　to
put　the　nine＇19＇　generals；　Thrasyllus；　Erasinides；　and　the　rest；　to
death　by　a　single　inclusive　vote。　Whereupon；　in　spite　of　the　bitter
resentment　of　the　people；　and　the　menaces　of　several　influential
citizens；　he　refused　to　put　the　question；　esteeming　it　of　greater
importance　faithfully　to　abide　by　the　oath　which　he　had　taken；　than　to
gratify　the　people　wrongfully；　or　to　screen　himself　from　the　menaces
of　the　mighty。　The　fact　being；　that　with　regard　to　the　care　bestowed
by　the　gods　upon　men；　his　belief　differed　widely　from　that　of　the
multitude。　Whereas　most　people　seem　to　imagine　that　the　gods　know　in
part；　and　are　ignorant　in　part；　Socrates　believed　firmly　that　the　gods
know　all　thingsboth　the　things　that　are　said　and　the　things　that　are
done；　and　the　things　that　are　counselled　in　the　silent　chambers　of　the
heart。　Moreover；　they　are　present　everywhere；　and　bestow　signs　upon
man　concerning　all　the　things　of　man。

＇17＇　Or　〃Senate。〃　Lit。　〃the　Boule。〃

＇18＇　Lit。　〃Epistates　of　the　Ecclesia。〃　See　Grote；　〃H。　G。〃　viii。　271；
　　　　Plat。　〃Apol。〃　32　B。

＇19＇　｛ennea｝　would　seem　to　be　a　slip　of　the　pen　for　｛okto｝；　eight。　See
　　　　〃Hell。〃　I。　v。　16；　vi。　16；　vi。　29；　vii。　1　foll。

I　can；　therefore；　but　repeat　my　former　words。　It　is　a　marvel　to　me　how
the　Athenians　came　to　be　persuaded　that　Socrates　fell　short　of　sober…
mindedness　as　touching　the　gods。　A　man　who　never　ventured　one　impious
word　or　deed　against　the　gods　we　worship；　but　whose　whole　language
concerning　them；　and　his　every　act；　closely　coincided；　word　for　word；
and　deed　for　deed；　with　all　we　deem　distinctive　of　devoutest　piety。


II

No　less　surprising　to　my　mind　is　the　belief　that　Socrates　corrupted
the　young。　This　man；　who；　beyond　what　has　been　already　stated；　kept
his　appetites　and　passions　under　strict　control；　who　was　pre…eminently
capable　of　enduring　winter's　cold　and　summer's　heat　and　every　kind　of
toil；　who　was　so　schooled　to　curtail　his　needs　that　with　the　scantiest
of　means　he　never　lacked　sufficiencyis　it　credible　that　such　a　man
could　have　made　others　irreverent　or　lawless；　or　licentious；　or
effeminate　in　face　of　toil？　Was　he　not　rather　the　saving　of　many
through　the　passion　for　virtue　which　he　roused　in　them；　and　the　hope
he　infused　that　through　careful　management　of　themselves　they　might
grow　to　be　truly　beautiful　and　goodnot　indeed　that　he　ever　undertook
to　be　a　teacher　of　virtue；　but　being　evidently　virtuous　himself　he
made　those　who　associated　with　him　hope　that　by　imitating　they　might
at　last　resemble　him。

But　let　it　not　be　inferred　that　he　was　negligent　of　his　own　body　or
approved　of　those　who　neglected　theirs。　If　excess　of　eating；
counteracted　by　excess　of　toil；　was　a　dietary　of　which　he
disapproved；＇1＇　to　gratify　the　natural　claim　of　appetite　in
conjunction　with　moderate　exercise　was　a　system　he　favoured；　as
tending　to　a　healthy　condition　of　the　body　without　trammelling　the
cultivation　of　the　spirit。　On　the　other　hand；　there　was　nothing
dandified　or　pretentious　about　him；　he　indulged　in　no　foppery　of　shawl
or　shoes；　or　other　effeminacy　of　living。

＇1＇　See　＇Plat。＇　〃Erast。〃　132　C。

Least　of　all　did　he　tend　to　make　his　companions　greedy　of　money。　He
would　not；　while　restraining　passion　generally；　make　capital　out　of
the　one　passion　which　attached　others　to　himself；　and　by　this
abstinence；　he　believed；　he　was　best　consulting　his　own　freedom；　in　so
much　that　he　stigmatised　those　who　condescended　to　take　wages　for
their　society　as　vendors　of　their　own　persons；　because　they　were
compelled　to　discuss　for　the　benefits　of　their　paymasters。　What
surprised　him　was　that　any　one　possessing　virtue　should　deign　to　ask
money　as　its　price　instead　of　simply　finding　his　rward　in　the
acquisition　of　an　honest　friend；　as　if　the　new…fledged　soul　of　honour
could　forget　her　debt　of　gratitude　to　her　greatest　benefactor。

For　himself；　without　making　any　such　profession；　he　was　content　to
believe　that　those　who　accepted　his　views　would　play　their　parts　as
good　and　true　friends　to　himself　and　one　another　their　lives　long。
Once　more　then：　how　should　a　man　of　this　character　corrupt　the　young？
unless　the　careful　cultivation　of　virtue　be　corruption。

But；　says　the　accuser；＇2＇　by　all　that's　sacred！　did　not　Socrates　cause
his　associates　to　despise　the　established　laws　when　he　dwelt　on　the
folly　of　appointing　state　officers　by　ballot？＇3＇　a　principle　which；　he
said；　no　one　would　care　to　apply　in　selecting　a　pilot　or　a　flute…
player　or　in　any　similar　case；　where　a　mistake　would　be　far　less
disastrous　than　in　matters　political。　Words　like　these；　according　to
the　accuser；　tended　to　incite　the　young　to　contemn　the　established
constitution；　rendering　them　violent　and　headstrong。　But　for　myself　I
think　that　those　who　cultivate　wisdom　and　believe　themselves　able　to
instruct　their　fellow…citizens　as　to　their　interests　are　least　likely
to　become　partisans　of　violence。　They　are　too　well　aware　that　to
violence　attach　enmities　and　dangers；　whereas　results　as　good　may　be
obtained　by　persuasion　safely　and　amicably。　For　the　victim　of　violence
hates　with　vindictiveness　as　one　from　whom　something　precious　has　been
stolen；　while　the　willing　subject　of　persuasion　is　ready　to　kiss　the
hand　which　has　done　him　a　service。　Hence　compulsion　is　not　the　method
of　him　who　makes　wisdom　his　study；　but　of　him　who　wields　power
untempered　by　reflection。　Once　more：　the　man　who　ventures　on　violence
needs　the　support　of　many　to　fight　his　battles；　while　he　whose
strength　lies　in　persuasiveness　triumphs　single…handed；　for　he　is
conscious　of　a　cunning　to　compel　consent　unaided。　And　what　has　such　a
one　to　do　with　the　spilling　of　blood？　since　how　ridiculous　it　were　to
do　men　to　death　rather　than　turn　to　account　the　trusty　service　of　the
living。

＇2＇　｛o　kategoros｝　=　Polycrates　possibly。　See　M。　Schantz；　op。　cit。；
　　　　〃Einleitun；〃　S。　6：　〃Die　Anklagerede　des　Polykrates〃；　Introduction；
　　　　p。　xxxii。　foll。

＇3＇　i。e。　staking　the　election　of　a　magistrate　on　the　colour　of　a　bean。
　　　　See　Aristot。　〃Ath。　Pol。〃　viii。　2；　and　Dr。　Sandys　ad　loc。

But；　the　accuser　answers；　the　two　men＇4＇　who　wrought　the　greatest
evils　to　the　state　at　any　timeto　wit；　Critias　and　Alcibiadeswere
both　companions　of　SocratesCritias　the　oligarch；　and　Alcibiades　the
democrat。　Where　would　you　find　a　more　arrant　thief；　savage；　and
murderer＇5＇　than　the　one？　where　such　a　portent　of　insolence；
incontinence；　and　high…handedness　as　the　other？　For　my　part；　in　so　far
as　these　two　wrought　evil　to　the　state；　I　have　no　desire　to　appear　as
the　apologist　of　either。　I　confine　myself　to　explaining　what　this
intimacy　of　theirs　with　Socrates　really　was。

＇4＇　See　〃Hell。〃　I。　and　II。　passim。

＇5＇　Reading　｛kleptistatos　te　kai　biaiotatos　kai　phonikotatos｝；　or　if
　　　　｛pleonektistatos　te　kai　biaiotatis｝；　translate　〃such　a　manner　of
　　　　greed　and　violence　as　the　one；　of　insolence；　etc。；　as　the　other？〃
　　　　See　Grote；　〃H。　G。〃　viii。　337。

Never　were　two　more　ambitious　citizens　seen　at　Athens。　Ambition　was　in
their　blood。　If　they　were　to　have　their　will；　all　power　was　to　be　in
their　hands；　their　fame　was　to　eclipse　all　other。　Of　Socrates　they
knewfirst　that　he　lived　an　absolutely　independent　life　on　the
scantiest　means；　next　that　he　was　self…disciplined　to　the　last　degree
in　respect　of　pleasures；　lastly　that　he　was　so　formidable　in　debate
that　there　was　no　antagonist　he　could　not　twist　round　his　little
finger。　Such　being　their　views；　and　such　the　character　of　the　pair；
which　is　the　more　probable：　that　they　sought　the　society　of　Socrates
because　they　felt　the　fascination　of　his　life；　and　were　attracted　by
the　bearing　of　the　man？　or　because　they　thought；　if　only　we　are
leagued　with　him　we　shall　become　adepts　in　statecraft　and　unrivalled
in　the　arts　of　speech　and　action？　For　my　part　I　believe　that　if　the
choice　from　Heaven　had　been　given　them　to　live　such　a　life　as　they　saw
Socrates　living　to　its　close；　or　to　die；　they　would　both　have　chosen
death。

Their　acts　are　a　conclusive　witness　to　their　characters。　They　no
sooner　felt　themselves　to　be　the　masters　of　those　they　came　in　contact
with　than　they　sprang　aside　from　Socrates　and　plunged　into　that　whirl
of　politics　but　for　which　they　might　never　have　sought　his　society。

It　may　be　objected：　before　giving　his　companions　lessons　in　politics
Socrates　had　better　have　taught　them　sobriety。＇6＇　Without　disputing
the　principle；　I　would　point　out　that　a　teacher　cannot　fail　to
discover　to　his　pupils　his　method　of　carrying　out　his　own　precepts；
and　this　along　with　argumentative　encouragement。　Now　I　know　that
Socrates　disclosed　himself　to　his　companions　as　a　beautiful　and　noble
being；　who　would　reason　and　debate　with　them　concerning　virtue　and
other　human　interests　in　the　noblest　manner。　And　of　these　two　I　know
that　as　long　as　they　were　companions　of　Socrates　even　they　were
temperate；　not　assuredly　from　fear　of　being