战争与和平(下)-第24部分

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3。　However　we　increase　the　degree　of　difficulty　of　comprehending　the　causes　of　the　act；　we　never　reach　a　conception　of　complete　free　will；　that　is；　absolute　absence　of　cause。　Though　the　cause　of　the　expression　of　will　in　any　act　of　our　own　or　another’s　may　be　beyond　our　ken；　it　is　the　first　impulse　of　the　intellect　to　presuppose　and　seek　a　cause；　without　which　no　phenomenon　is　conceivable。　I　raise　my　arm　in　order　to　perform　an　act　independent　of　any　cause；　but　the　fact　that　I　want　to　perform　an　act　independent　of　any　cause　is　the　cause　of　my　action。
But　even　if　by　conceiving　a　man　entirely　excluded　from　external　influence；　and　exercising　only　a　momentary　act　in　the　present；　not　called　forth　by　any　cause；　we　were　to　reduce　the　element　of　necessity　to　an　infinitesimal　minimum　equivalent　to　nil；　we　should　even　then　not　have　reached　a　conception　of　complete　free　will　in　a　man；　for　a　creature；　uninfluenced　by　the　external　world；　outside　of　time；　and　independent　of　cause；　is　no　longer　a　man。
In　the　same　way　we　can　never　conceive　a　human　action　subject　only　to　necessity　without　any　element　of　free　will。
1。　However　we　increase　our　knowledge　of　the　conditions　of　space　in　which　a　man　is　placed；　that　knowledge　can　never　be　complete　since　the　number　of　these　conditions　is　infinitely　great；　seeing　that　space　is　in　finite。　And　so　long　as　not　all　the　conditions　that　may　influence　a　man　are　defined；　the　circle　of　necessity　is　not　complete；　and　there　is　still　a　loophole　for　free　will。
2。　Though　we　may　make　the　period　of　time　intervening　between　an　act　and　our　criticism　of　it　as　long　as　we　choose；　that　period　will　be　finite；　and　time　is　infinite；　and　so　in　this　respect　too　the　circle　of　necessity　is　not　complete。
3。　However　easy　the　chain　of　causation　of　any　act　may　be　to　grasp；　we　shall　never　know　the　whole　chain；　since　it　is　endless；　and　so　again　we　cannot　attain　absolute　necessity。
But　apart　from　that；　even　if；　reducing　the　minimum　of　free　will　till　it　is　equivalent　to　nil；　we　were　to　admit　in　some　case—as；　for　instance；　that　of　a　dying　man；　an　unborn　babe；　an　idiot—a　complete　absence　of　free　will；　we　should　in　so　doing　have　destroyed　the　very　conception　of　man；　in　the　case　we　are　examining；　since　as　soon　as　there　is　no　free　will；　there　is　no　man。　And　therefore　the　conception　of　the　action　of　a　man　subject　only　to　the　law　of　necessity；　without　the　smallest　element　of　free　will；　is　as　impossible　as　the　conception　of　a　completely　free　human　action。
Thus　to　conceive　a　human　action　subject　only　to　the　law　of　necessity　without　free　will；　we　must　assume　a　knowledge　of　an　infinite　number　of　conditions　in　space；　an　infinitely　long　period　of　time；　and　an　infinite　chain　of　causation。
To　conceive　a　man　perfectly　free；　not　subject　to　the　law　of　necessity；　we　must　conceive　a　man　outside　of　space；　outside　of　time；　and　free　from　all　dependence　on　cause。
In　the　first　case；　if　necessity　were　possible　without　free　will；　we　should　be　brought　to　a　definition　of　the　laws　of　necessity　in　the　terms　of　the　same　necessity；　that　is；　to　mere　form　without　content。
In　the　second　case；　if　free　will　were　possible　without　necessity；　we　should　come　to　unconditioned　free　will　outside　of　space；　and　time　and　cause；　which　by　the　fact　of　its　being　unconditioned　and　unlimited　would　be　nothing　else　than　content　without　form。
We　should　be　brought　in　fact　to　these　two　fundamental　elements；　of　which　man’s　whole　cosmic　conception　is　made　up—the　incomprehensible　essence　of　life　and　the　laws　that　give　form　to　that　essence。
Reason　says：　1。　space　with　all　the　forms　given　it　by　its　visibility—matter—is　infinite；　and　is　not　thinkable　otherwise。
2。　Time　is　infinite　movement　without　one　moment　of　rest；　and　it　is　not　otherwise　thinkable。
3。　The　connection　of　cause　and　effect　has　no　beginning；　and　can　have　no　end。
Consciousness　says：　1。　I　alone　am；　and　all　that　exists　is　only　I；　consequently　I　include　space。
2。　I　measure　moving　time　by　the　unchanging　moment　of　the　present；　in　which　alone　I　am　conscious　of　myself　living；　consequently　I　am　outside　of　time；　and
3。　I　am　outside　of　cause；　since　I　feel　myself　the　cause　of　every　phenomenon　of　my　life。
Reason　gives　expression　to　the　laws　of　necessity。　Consciousness　gives　expression　to　the　reality　of　free　will。
Freedom　unlimited　by　anything　is　the　essence　of　life　in　man’s　consciousness。　Necessity　without　content　is　man’s　reason　with　its　three　forms　of　thought。
Free　will　is　what　is　examined：　Necessity　is　what　examines。　Free　will　is　content：　Necessity　is　form。
It　is　only　by　the　analysis　of　the　two　sources　of　knowledge；　standing　to　one　another　in　the　relation　of　form　and　content；　that　the　mutually　exclusive；　and　separately　inconceivable　ideas　of　free　will　and　necessity　are　formed。
Only　by　their　synthesis　is　a　clear　conception　of　the　life　of　man　gained。
Outside　these　two　ideas—in　their　synthesis　mutually　definitive　as　form　and　content—no　conception　of　life　is　possible。
All　that　we　know　of　men’s　life　is　only　a　certain　relation　of　free　will　to　necessity；　that　is；　of　consciousness　to　the　laws　of　reason。
All　that　we　know　of　the　external　world　of　nature　is　only　a　certain　relation　of　the　forces　of　nature　to　necessity；　or　of　the　essence　of　life　to　the　laws　of　reason。
The　forces　of　the　life　of　nature　lie　outside　us；　and　not　subject　to　our　consciousness；　and　we　call　these　forces　gravity；　inertia；　electricity；　vital　force；　and　so　on。　But　the　force　of　the　life　of　man　is　the　subject　of　our　consciousness；　and　we　call　it　free　will。
But　just　as　the　force　of　gravitation—in　itself　incomprehensible；　though　felt　by　every　man—is　only　so　far　understood　by　us　as　we　know　the　laws　of　necessity　to　which　it　is　subject　（from　the　first　knowledge　that　all　bodies　are　heavy　down　to　Newton’s　law）；　so　too　the　force　of　free　will；　unthinkable　in　itself；　but　recognised　by　the　consciousness　of　every　man；　is　only　so　far　understood　as　we　know　the　laws　of　necessity　to　which　it　is　subject　（from　the　fact　that　every　man　dies　up　to　the　knowledge　of　the　most　complex　economic　or　historic　laws）。
All　knowledge　is　simply　bringing　the　essence　of　life　under　the　laws　of　reason。
Man’s　free　will　is　distinguished　from　every　other　force　by　the　fact　that　it　is　the　subject　of　man’s　consciousness。　But　in　the　eyes　of　reason　it　is　not　distinguished　from　any　other　force。
The　forces　of　gravitation；　of　electricity；　or　of　chemical　affinity；　are　only　distinguished　from　one　another　by　being　differently　defined　by　reason。　In　the　same　way　the　force　of　man’s　free　will　is　only　distinguished　by　reason　from　the　other　forces　of　nature　by　the　definition　given　it　by　reason。　Free　will　apart　from　necessity；　that　is；　apart　from　the　laws　of　reason　defining　it；　is　in　no　way　different　from　gravitation；　or　heat；　or　the　force　of　vegetation；　for　reason；　it　is　only　a　momentary；　indefinite　sensation　of　life。
And　as　the　undefined　essence　of　the　force　moving　the　heavenly　bodies；　the　undefined　essence　of　the　force　of　heat；　of　electricity；　or　of　chemical　affinity；　or　of　vital　force；　forms　the　subject　of　astronomy；　physics；　chemistry；　botany；　zoology；　and　so　on；　so　the　essence　of　the　force　of　free　will　forms　the　subject　matter　of　history。　But　even　as　the　subject　of　every　science　is　the　manifestation　of　that　unknown　essence　of　life；　yet　that　essence　itself　can　only　be　the　subject　of　metaphysics；　so　too　the　manifestation　of　the　force　of　free　will　in　space；　and　time；　and　dependence　on　cause；　forms　the　subject　of　history；　but　free　will　itself　is　the　subject　of　metaphysics。
In　the　experimental　sciences；　what　is　known　to　us　we　call　the　laws　of　necessity；　what　is　unknown　to　us　we　call　vital　force。　Vital　force　is　simply　an　expression　for　what　remains　unexplained　by　what　we　know　of　the　essence　of　life。　So　in　history　what　is　known　to　us　we　call　the　laws　of　necessity；　what　is　unknown；　we　call　free　will。　Free　will　is　for　history　simply　an　expression　for　what　remains　unexplained　by　the　laws　of　men’s　life　that　we　know。


Chapter　11
HISTORY　examines　the　manifestations　of　man’s　free　will　in　connection　with　the　external　world　in　time　and　in　dependence　on　cause；　that　is；　defines　that　freedom　by　the　laws　of　reason；　and　so　history　is　only　a　science　in　so　far　as　that　freedom　is　defined　by　those　laws。
To　history　the　recognition　of　the　free　wills　of　men　as　forces　able　to　influence　historical　events；　that　is；　not　subject　to　laws；　is　the　same　as　would　be　to　astronomy　the　recognition　of　free　will　in　the　movements　of　the　heavenly　bodies。
This　recognition　destroys　the　possibility　of　the　existence　of　laws；　that　is；　of　any　science　whatever。　If　there　is　so　much　as　one　body　moving　at　its　free　will；　the　laws　of　Kepler　and　of　Newton　are　annulled；　and　every　conception　of　the　movement　of　the　heavenly　bodies　is　destroyed。　If　there　is　a　single　human　action　due　to　free　will；　no　historical　law　exists；　and　no　conception　of　historical　events　can　be　formed。
For　history　there　exist　lines　of　movement　of　human　wills；　one　extremity　of　which　vanishes　in　the　unknowable；　and　at　the　other　extremity　of　which　in　space；　in　time；　and　in　dependence　on　cause；　there　moves　men’s　consciousness　of　free　will　in　the　present。
The　more　this　curve　of　movement　is　analysed　before　our　eyes；　the　clearer　are　the　laws　of　its　movement。　To　discover　and　define　those　laws　is　the　problem　of　history。
From　the　point　of　view　from　which　the　science　of　history　now　approaches　its　subject；　by　the　method　it　now　follows；　seeking　the　causes　of　phenomena　in　the　free　will　of　men；　the　expression　of　laws　by　science　is　impossible；　since　however　we　limit　the　free　will　of　men；　so　long　as　we　recognise　it　as　a　force　not　subject　to　law；　the　existence　of　law　becomes　impossible。
Only　limiting　this　element　of　free　will　to　infinity；　that　is；　regarding　it　as　an　infinitesimal　minimum；　we　are　convinced　of　the　complete　unattainability　of　causes；　and　then；　instead　of　seeking　causes；　history　sees　before　itself　the　task　of　seeking　laws。
The　seeking　of　those　laws　has　been　begun　long　ago；　and　the　new　lines　of　thought　which　history　must　adopt　are　being　worked　out　simultaneously　with　the　self…destruction　towards　which　the　old…fashioned　history　is　going；　forever　dissecting　and　dissecting　the　causes　of　phenomena。
All　human　sciences　have　followed　the　same　course。　Reaching　infinitesimals；　mathematics；　the　most　ex