the path of empire-第4部分

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ooked　forward。　Natural　and　unified　as　this　area　looks　upon　the　map　and　actually　is　today；　in　1850　the　extent　of　territorial　expansion　had　overreached　the　means　of　transportation。　The　Great　Plains；　then　regarded　as　the　Great　American　Desert；　and　the　Rockies　presented　impossible　barriers　to　all　but　adventurous　individuals。　These　men；　uniting　in　bands　for　self…protection　and　taking　their　lives　in　their　hands；　were　able　with　good　luck　to　take　themselves　but　little　else　across　this　central　region　and　the　western　barrier。　All　ordinary　communication；　all　mail　and　all　freight；　must　go　by　sea。　The　United　States　was　actually　divided　into　two　very　unequal　parts；　and　California　and　Oregon　were　geographically　far　distant　colonies。

The　ocean　highroad　belonged　to　the　United　States　in　common　with　all　nations；　but　it　took　American　ships　to　the　opposite　ends　of　the　earth。　No　regular　shuttle　of　traffic　sufficient　to　weave　the　nation　together　could　be　expected　to　pass　Cape　Horn　at　every　throw。　The　natural　route　lay　obviously　through　the　Caribbean；　across　some　one　of　the　isthmuses；　and　up　the　Pacific　coast。　Here　however；　the　United　States　would　have　to　use　territory　belonging　to　other　nations；　and　to　obtain　the　right　of　transit　and　security　agreement　was　necessary。　All　these　isthmus　routes；　moreover；　needed　improvement。　Capital　must　be　induced　to　do　the　work；　and　one　necessary　inducement　was　a　guarantee　of　stable　conditions　of　investment。

This　isthmus　route　became　for　a　time　the　prime　object　of　American　diplomacy。　The　United　States　made　in　1846　satisfactory　arrangements　with　the　Republic　of　New　Granada　（later　Colombia）；　across　which　lay　the　most　southern　route；　and　in　1853　with　Mexico；　of　whose　northern　or　Tehuantepec　route　many　had　great　expectations；　but　a　further　difficulty　was　now　discovered。　The　best　lanes　were　those　of　Panama　and　of　Nicaragua。　When　the　discovery　of　gold　in　California　in　1848　made　haste　a　more　important　element　in　the　problem；　〃Commodore〃　Vanderbilt；　at　that　time　the　shipping　king　of　the　United　States；　devoted　his　attention　to　the　Nicaragua　route　and　made　it　the　more　popular。　Here　however；　the　United　States　encountered　not　only　the　local　independent　authorities　but　also　Great　Britain。　Just　to　the　north　of　the　proposed　route　Great　Britain　possessed　Belize；　now　British　Honduras；　a　meager　colony　but　with　elastic　boundaries。　For　many　generations；　too；　she　had　concerned　herself　with　securing　the　rights　of　the　Mosquito　Indians；　who　held　a　territory；　also　with　elastic　boundaries；　inconveniently　near　the　San　Juan　River；　the　Caribbean　entrance　to　the　Nicaraguan　thoroughfare。　From　Great　Britain；　moreover；　must　come　a　large　portion　of　the　capital　to　be　employed　in　constructing　the　canal　which　was　expected　soon　to　cut　the　isthmus。

The　local　situation　soon　became　acute。　Costa　Rica；　Nicaragua；　and　the　Mosquitoes　all　claimed　the　mouth　of　the　San　Juan；　Honduras　and　Nicaragua；　the　control　of　the　Pacific　outlet。　British　diplomatic　and　naval　officers　clashed　with　those　of　the　United　States　until；　in　their　search　for　complete　control；　both　exceeded　the　instructions　which　they　had　received　from　home。　The　British　occupied　Greytown　on　the　San　Juan　and　supported　the　Mosquitoes　and　Costa　Rica。　The　Americans　won　favor　in　Nicaragua　and　Honduras；　framed　treaties　allowing　transit　and　canal　construction；　and　proposed　the　annexation　of　Tigre　Island；　which；　commanded　the　proposed　Pacific　outlet。

To　untie　these　knots；　Sir　Henry　Bulwer　was　sent　to　Washington　to　negotiate　with　John　M。　Clayton；　President　Taylor's　Secretary　of　State。　Neither　of　these　negotiators　was　of　the　caliber　of　Webster　and　Ashburton；　and　the　treaty　which　they　drew　up　proved　rather　a　Pandora's　box　of　future　difficulties　than　a　satisfactory　settlement。　In　the　first　place　it　was　agreed　that　any　canal　to　be　constructed　over　any　of　the　isthmuses　was　to　be　absolutely　neutral；　in　time　of　war　as　well　as　of　peace。　Both　nations　were　to　guarantee　this　neutrality；　and　other　nations　were　invited　to　join　with　them。　No　other　nations　did　join；　however；　and　the　project　became　a　dual　affair　which；　owing　to　the　superiority　of　the　British　Navy；　gave　Britain　the　advantage；　or　would　eventually　have　done　so　if　a　canal　had　been　constructed。　Subsequently　the　majority　of　Americans　decided　that　such　a　canal　must　be　under　the　sole　control　of　the　United　States；　and　the　treaty　then　stood　as　a　stumbling　block　in　the　way　of　the　realization　of　this　idea。

More　immediately　important；　however；　and　a　great　wrench　to　American　policies；　was　the　provision　that　neither　power　〃will　ever　erect　or　maintain　any　fortifications　commanding〃　the　canal　〃or　occupy；　or　fortify；　or　colonize；　or　assume　or　exercise　any　dominion　over。。。any　part　of　Central　America。〃　This　condition　violated　Adams's　principle　that　the　United　States　was　not　on　the　same　footing　with　any　European　power　in　American　affairs　and　should　not　be　bound　by　any　self…denying　ordinance；　and　actually　it　reversed　the　principle　against　the　United　States。　An　explanatory　note　accompanying　the　treaty　recognized　that　this　provision　did　not　apply　to　Belize　and　her　dependencies；　and　Great　Britain　promptly　denied　that　it　applied　to　any　rights　she　already　possessed　in　Central　America；　including　the　Mosquito　protectorate　and　certain　Bay　Islands　which　were　claimed　by　Great　Britain　as　dependencies　of　Belize　and　by　Honduras　as　a　part　of　her　territory。

In　vain　did　Webster；　who　succeeded　Clayton；　seek　an　agreement。　His　term　of　office　passed；　and　the　controversy　fell　into　the　hands　of　Lord　Palmerston；　the　jingoistic　spirit　who　began　at　this　time　to　dominate　British　foreign　policy；　and　of　James　Buchanan；　who；　known　to　us　as　a　spineless　seeker　after　peace　where　there　was　no　peace；　was　at　this　time　riding　into　national　leadership　on　a　wave　of　expansionist　enthusiasm。　Buchanan　and　Palmerston　mutually　shook　the　stage　thunder　of　verbal　extravagance；　but　probably　neither　intended　war。　Poker　was　at　this　time　the　national　American　game；　and　bluff　was　a　highly　developed　art。　The　American　player　won　a　partial　victory。　In　1856　Great　Britain　agreed　to　withdraw　her　protectorate　over　the　Mosquitoes；　to　acknowledge　the　supremacy　of　Honduras　over　the　Bay　Islands；　and　to　accept　a　reasonable　interpretation　of　the　Belize　boundary。　Though　this　convention　was　never　ratified；　Great　Britain　carried　out　its　terms；　and　in　1860　Buchanan　announced　himself　satisfied。

The　dreams　of　1850；　however；　were　not　satisfied。　A　railroad　was　completed　across　Panama　in　1855；　but　no　canal　was　constructed　until　years　after　the　great　transcontinental　railroads　had　bound　California　to　the　East　by　bonds　which　required　no　foreign　sanction。　Yet　the　Clayton…Bulwer　Treaty　remained　an　entangling　alliance；　destined　to　give　lovers　of　peace　and　amity　many　more　uncomfortable　hours。

During　the　Civil　War　other　causes　of　irritation　arose　between　the　United　States　and　Great　Britain。　The　proclamation　of　neutrality；　by　which　the　British　Government　recognized　the　Confederacy　as　a　belligerent；　seemed　to　the　North　an　unfriendly　act。　Early　in　the　war　occurred　the　Trent　affair；　which　added　to　the　growing　resentment。*　It　was　held　to　be　a　violation　of　professed　neutrality　that　Confederate　commerce　destroyers　were　permitted　to　be　built　and　fitted　out　in　British　yards。　The　subsequent　transfer　of　hundreds　of　thousands　of　tons　of　American　shipping　to　British　registry；　owing　to　the　depredations　of　these　raiders；　still　further　incensed　the　American　people。　It　was　in　the　midst　of　these　strained　relations　that　the　Fenian　Brotherhood　in　the　United　States　attempted　the　invasion　of　Canada。

*　See　Stephenson；　〃Abraham　Lincoln　and　the　Union；〃　in　〃The　Chronicles　of　America。〃


America　laid　claims　against　Great　Britain；　based　not　merely　on　the　actual　destruction　of　merchantmen　by　the　Alabama；　the　Florida；　and　other　Confederate　vessels　built　in　British　yards；　but　also　on　such　indirect　losses　as　insurance；　cost　of　pursuit；　and　commercial　profits。　The　American　Minister；　Charles　Francis　Adams；　had　proposed　the　arbitration　of　these　claims；　but　the　British　Ministry；　declined　to　arbitrate　matters　involving　the　honor　of　the　country。　Adams's　successor；　Reverdy　Johnson；　succeeded　in　arranging　a　convention　in　1868　excluding　from　consideration　all　claims　for　indirect　damages；　but　this　arrangement　was　unfavorably　reported　from　the　Committee　on　Foreign　Affairs　in　the　Senate。　It　was　then　that　Charles　Sumner；　Chairman　of　the　Committee；　gave　utterance　to　his　astounding　demands　upon　Great　Britain。　The　direct　claims　of　the　United　States；　he　contended；　were　no　adequate　compensation　for　its　losses；　the　indirect　claims　must　also　be　made　good；　particularly　those　based　on　the　loss　of　the　American　merchant　marine　by　transfer　to　the　British　flag。　The　direct　or　〃individual〃　American　losses　amounted　to　15；000；000。　〃But　this　leaves　without　recognition　the　vaster　damage　to　commerce　driven　from　the　ocean；　and　that　other　damage；　immense　and　infinite；　caused　by　the　prolongation　of　the　war；　all　of　which　may　be　called　NATIONAL　in　contradistinction　to　INDIVIDUAL。〃　Losses　to　commerce　he　reckoned　at　110；000；000；　adding　that　this　amount　must　be　considered　only　an　item　in　the　bill；　for　the　prolongation　of　the　war　was　directly　traceable　to　England。　〃The　rebellion　was　suppressed　at　a　cost　of　more　than　four　thousand　million　dollars。。。through　British　intervention　the　war　was　doubled　in　duration；　。。。England　is　justly　responsible　for　the　additional　expenditure。〃　Sumner's　total　bill　against　Great　Britain；　then；　amounted　to　over　2；000；000；000；　〃everyone；〃　said　he；　〃can　make　the　calculation。〃

Had　an　irresponsible　member　of　Congress　made　these　demands；　they　might　have　been　dismissed　as　another　effort　to　twist　the　British　lion's　tail；　but　Charles　Sumner　took　himself　seriously；　expected　others　to　take　him　seriously；　and　unhappily　was　taken　seriously　by　a　great　number　of　his　fellow　countrymen。　The　explanation　of　his　preposterous　demand　appeared　subsequently　in　a　memorandum　which　he　prepared。　To　avoid　all　possible　future　clashes　with　Great　Britain；　he　would　have　her　withdraw　from　the　American　continents　and　the　Western　Hemisphere。　Great　Britain　might　discharge　her　financial　obligations　by　transferring　to　the　United　States　the　whole　of　British　America！　And　Sumner　seems　actually　to　have　believed　that　he　was　promot