lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第10部分

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after。　But　though　internal　trade　was　free　for　the　passage　of　commodities；　yet　there　still　existed　a　network　of　restrictions　on　the　mobility　of　labour　and　capital。　By　the　law　of　apprenticeship　no　person　could　follow　any　trade　till　he　had　served　his　seven　years。　The　operation　of　the　law　was　limited；　it　is　true；　to　trades　already　established　in　the　fifth　year　of　Elizabeth；　and　obtained　only　in　market…towns　and　cities。　But　wherever　there　was　a　municipal　corporation；　the　restrictions　which　they　imposed　made　it　generally　impossible　for　a　man　to　work　unless　he　was　a　freeman　of　the　town；　and　this　he　could　as　a　rule　become　only　by　serving　his　apprenticeship。　Moreover；　the　corporations　supervised　the　prices　and　qualities　of　wares。　In　the　halls；　where　the　smaller　manufacturers　sold　their　goods；　all　articles　exposed　for　sale　were　inspected。　The　medieval　idea　still　obtained　that　the　State　should　guarantee　the　genuineness　of　wares：　it　was　not　left　to　the　consumer　to　discover　their　quality。　And　in　the　Middle　Ages；　no　doubt；　when　men　used　the　same　things　from　year　to　year；　a　proper　supervision　did　secure　good　work。　But　with　the　expansion　of　trade　it　ceased　to　be　effective。　Sir　Josiah　Child　already　recognised　that　changes　of　fashion　must　prove　fatal　to　it；　and　that　a　nation　which　intended　to　have　the　trade　of　the　world　must　make　articles　of　every　quality。　Yet　the　belief　in　the　necessity　of　regulation　was　slow　in　dying　out；　and　fresh　Acts　to　secure　it　were　passed　as　late　as　George　II's　reign。　　　　　It　is　not　clear　how　far　the　restrictions　on　the　mobility　of　capital　and　Labour　were　operative。　No　doubt　they　succeeded　to　a　large　extent；　but　when　Adam　Smith　wrote　his　bitter　criticism　of　the　corporations；　he　was　probably　thinking　of　the　particular　instance　of　Glasgow；　where　Watt　was　not　allowed　to　set　up　trade。　There　were；　however；　even　at　that　time；　many　free　towns；　Like　Birmingham　and　Manchester；　which　flourished　greatly　from　the　fact　of　their　freedom。　And　even　in　the　chartered　towns；　if　Eden　is　to　be　trusted；　the　restrictions　were　far　less　stringent　than　we　should　gather　from　Adam　Smith。　'I　am　persuaded；'　he　says；　'that　a　shoemaker；　who　had　not　served　an　apprenticeship；　might　exercise　his　industry　at　Bristol　or　Liverpool；　with　as　little　hazard　of　being　molested　by　the　corporation　of　either　place；　as　of　being　disturbed　by　the　borough…reve　of　Manchester　or　the　head…constable　at　Birmingham。'　Then　after　quoting　and　criticising　Adam　Smith；　he　adds：　'I　confess；　I　very　much　doubt　whether　there　is　a　single　corporation　in　England；　the　exercise　of　whose　rights　does　at　present　operate　in　this　manner。。。。　In　this　instance；　as　in　many　others；　the　insensible　progress　of　society　has　reduced　chartered　rights　to　a　state　of　inactivity。'　We　may　probably　conclude　that　nonfreemen　were　often　unmolested；　but　that；　when　trade　was　bad；　they　were　liable　to　be　expelled。　　　　　Another　relic　of　Medievalism　was　the　regulation　of　wages　by　Justices　of　the　Peace；　a　practice　enjoined　by　the　Act　of　Elizabeth　already　referred　to。　Adam　Smith　speaks　of　it　as　part　of　a　general　system　of　oppression　of　the　poor　by　the　rich。　Whatever　may　have　been　the　case　in　some　instances　this　was　not　generally　true。　The　country　gentry　were；　on　the　whole；　anxious　to　do　justice　to　the　working　classes。　Combinations　of　labourers　were　forbidden　by　law；　because　it　was　thought　to　be　the　wrong　way　of　obtaining　the　object　in　view；　not　from　any　desire　to　keep　down　wages。　The　Justices　often　ordained　a　rise　in　wages；　and　the　workmen　themselves　were　strongly　in　favour　of　this　method　of　fixing　them。　The　employers　on　their　part　also　often　approved　of　it。　In　fact　we　have　an　exactly　similar　system　at　the　present　day　in　boards　of　arbitration。　The　Justice　was　an　arbitrator；　appointed　by　law；　and　it　is　a　mistaken　assumption　that　such　authoritative　regulation　may　not　have　been　good　in　its　day。　　　　　The　principle　of　regulation　was　applied　much　more　thoroughly　to　our　externaL　than　to　our　internal　trade。　The　former　was　entirely　carried　on　by　great　chartered　companies；　whether　they　were　on　a　joint…stock　footing；　Like　the　East　India　Company；　or　were　'regulated'　like　the　Turkey　Company；　in　which　every　man　traded　on　his　own　capital。　Here；　again；　Adam　Smith　carried　too　far　his　revolt　against　the　restrictive　system；　which　Led　him　to　denounce　corporate　trading　as　vicious　in　principle。　'The　directors　of　such　companies；'　he　says；　'being　the　managers　rather　of　other　people's　money　than　of　their　own；　it　cannot　well　be　expected　that　they　should　watch　over　it　with　the　same　anxious　vigilance　with　which　the　partners　in　a　private　co…partnery　frequently　watch　over　their　own。。。。　Negligence　and　profusion　must　always　prevail；　more　or　less；　in　the　management　of　the　affairs　of　such　a　company。'　This　is　an　instance　of　pure　a　Priori　reasoning；　but　Smith's　main　argument　is　derived　from　the　history　of　Joint…Stock　Companies。　He　sought　to　show　that；　as　a　matter　of　fact；　unless　they　had　had　a　monopoly；　they　had　failed；　that　is；　he　proceeded　inductively；　and　wound　up　with　an　empirical　law：　'it　seems　contrary　to　all　experience　that　a　Joint…Stock　Company　should　be　able　to　carry　on　successfully　any　branch　of　foreign　trade；　when　private　adventurers　can　come　into　any　sort　of　open　and　fair　competition　with　them。'　But　he　was　too　honest　not　to　admit　exceptions　to　his　rule；　as　in　the　instance　of　banking；　which　he　explained　by　the　fact　that　it　could　be　reduced　to　routine。　　　　　Smith's　empirical　law　is；　as　we　all　now　know；　far　from　being　universally　true；　though　it　was　a　reasonable　induction　enough　at　the　time　when　it　was　made。　Since　then　a　large　number　of　Joint…Stock　Companies　have　succeeded；　as　for　instance　in　the　iron　trade。　Nor　is　it　difficult　to　see　the　reason　of　this　change。　The　habit　of　combination　is　stronger　than　it　was；　and　we　have　discovered　how　to　interest　paid　servants　by　giving　them　a　share　in　the　results　of　the　enterprises　they　direct。　Experience　has　shown　also　that　a　big　company　can　buy　the　best　brains。　In　the　recent　depression　of　trade　the　ironworks　of　Dowlais；　which　are　managed　on　the　Joint…stock　system；　alone　remained　successful　amid　many　surrounding　failures；　and　that　because　they　had　the　ablest　man　in　the　district　as　manager。　　　　　In　Adam　Smith's　time；　however；　the　existence　of　Joint…Stock　Companies　was　due　not　to　any　notion　of　their　economical　superiority；　but　to　the　tendency　to　place　restrictions　upon　individual　enterprise；　based　upon　that　belief　in　the　antagonism　of　public　and　private　interests　which　was　characteristic　of　the　time。　The　same　idea　of　opposition　obtained　equally　in　international　relations。　The　prosperity　of　one　country　was　thought　to　be　incompatible　with　that　of　another。　If　one　profited　by　trade；　it　seemed　to　do　so　at　the　expense　of　its　neighbours。　This　theory　was　the　foundation　of　the　mercantile　system。　It　had　its　origin　in　the　spirit　of　Nationalism　…　the　idea　of　self…sustained　and　complete　national　life　…　which　came　in　with　the　Renaissance　and　the　Reformation。　　　　　But　how　came　this　Nationalism　to　he　connected　with　a　belief　in　the　special　importance　of　gold　and　silver；　which　is　generally　regarded　as　the　essence　of　the　mercantile　system？　The　object　of　that　system　was　national　greatness；　but　national　greatness　depends　on　national　riches　generally；　not　on　one　particular　kind　of　riches　only；　such　as　coin。　The　explanation　must　be　sought　in　the　fact　that；　owing　to　the　simultaneous　development　of　trade　and　the　money　system；　gold　and　silver　became　peculiarly　essential　to　the　machinery　of　commerce。　With　the　growth　of　standing　armies；　moreover；　State　finance　acquired　a　new　importance；　and　the　object　of　State　finance　was　to　secure　a　ready　supply　of　the　precious　metals。　Thus　the　theory　sprang　up　that　gold　and　silver　were　the　most　solid　and　durable　parts　of　the　moveable　wealth　of　a　nation；　and　that；　as　they　had　more　value　in　use　than　any　other　commodities；　every　state　should　do　all　in　its　power　to　acquire　a　great　store　of　them。　At　first　the　Government　tried　to　attain　this　object　by　accumulating　a　hoard；　but　this　policy　soon　proved　too　wasteful　and　difficult。　It　then　turned　its　attention　to　increasing　the　quantity　of　bullion　in　the　hands　of　the　people；　for　it　came　to　see　that　if　there　was　plenty　of　bullion　in　the　country　it　could　always　draw　upon　it　in　case　of　need。　The　export　of　gold　and　silver　was　accordingly　forbidden；　but　if　hoarding　had　proved　impracticable；　this　new　method　of　securing　the　desired　end　was　soon　found　to　be　useless；　as　the　prohibition　could　be　easily　evaded。　In　the　last　resort；　therefore；　it　was　sought　to　insure　a　continuous　influx　of　the　precious　metals　through　the　ordinary　channels　of　trade。　If　we　bought　less　than　we　sold；　it　was　argued；　the　balance　of　trade　must　be　paid　in　coin。　To　accomplish　this　end　every　encouragement　was　given　to　the　importation　of　raw　materials　and　the　necessaries　of　life；　but　the　purchase　of　foreign　manufactures　was；　for　the　most　part；　prohibited；　and　individuals　were　entreated　not　to　buy　imported　luxuries。　The　result　was　retaliation　abroad；　and　a　deadlock　in　the　commercial　machine。　Wars　of　tariff　were　common；　for　instance；　we　prohibited　the　importation　of　gold…lace　from　Flanders；　and　the　Flemings　in　return　excluded　our　wool。　The　system；　however；　resisted　the　teaching　of　experience；　despite　the　fact　that　in　abolishing　the　prohibition　of　the　export　of　gold　and　silver；　the　Government　acknowledged　the　true　principle　of　free　trade　put　forward　by　the　East　Indian　Company。　The　latter　contended　that　the　law　forbidding　the　export　of　bullion　was　not　only　useless；　since　it　was　easily　stultified　by　smuggling；　but　even；　if　enforced；　was　hurtful；　since　the　Orientals　would　only　sell　their　valuable　goods　for　silver。　The　success　of　this　contention　marks　the　transition　from　the　Mercantile　System　proper　to　modern　Protection。　The　advocates　of　that　system　had　shifted　their　ground；　and　instead　of　seeking　merely　to　prohibit　the　export　of　the　precious　metals；　they　established　a　general　protection　of　native　industries。　　　　　Their　measures　were　not　all　alike　bad。　The　Navigation　Acts；　for　instance；　were　defended　by　Adam　Smith；　and　Mill　has　indorsed　his　defence；　on　the　ground　that　national　defence　is　more　important　than　national　opulence。　　　　　The　most　famous　of　these　Acts　was　the　law　of　1651；　by　which　no　goods　of　the　growth　or　manufacture　of　Asia；