lectures on the industrial revolution in england-第12部分

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e　into　contact　with　a　great　original　mind；　which　teaches　us　how　to　think　and　work。　　　　　Original　people　always　are　confused　because　they　are　feeling　their　way。　　　　　If　we　look　for　the　fundamental　ideas　of　Adam　Smith；　those　which　distinguish　him　most　clearly　from　earlier　writers；　we　are　first　struck　by　his　cosmopolitanism。　He　was　the　precursor　of　Cobden　in　his　belief　that　commerce　is　not　of　one　nation；　but　that　all　the　nations　of　the　world　should　be　considered　as　one　great　community。　We　may　see　how　widely　he　had　departed　from　the　old　national　system　of　economy；　by　contrasting　the　mere　title　of　his　book；　The　Wealth　of　Nations；　with　that　of　Mun's　treatise；　England's　Treasure　in　Foreign　Trade。　This　cosmopolitanism　necessitated　a　detailed　refutation　of　the　mercantile　system。　He　had　to　prove　that　gold　and　silver　were　not　more　important　than　other　forms　of　wealth；　and　that　if　we　wanted　to　buy　them；　we　could　always　do　so；　if　we　had　other　consumable　goods　to　offer　in　exchange。　But　it　might　be　objected：　'What　if　a　nation　refuses　to　take　your　other　goods；　and　wants　your　gold？'　Adam　Smith　replied：　'in　that　case；　gold　will　leave　your　country　and　go　abroad；　as　a　consequence；　prices　will　fall　at　home；　foreigners　will　be　attracted　by　the　low　prices　to　buy　in　your　markets；　and　thus　the　gold　will　return。'　I　can　give　you　an　actual　example　from　recent　history　to　prove　the　truth　of　his　deduction。　During　the　potato　famine　of　1847；　we　had　to　import　enormous　quantities　of　grain　from　America；　and　as　a　consequence　had　to　send　there　*16；000；000　worth　of　bullion。　Immediately　prices　rose　in　America　and　fell　in　England；　English　merchants　discontinued　buying　in　America；　while　American　merchants　bought　largely　in　England；　so　that　in　the　following　year　all　the　gold　came　back　again。　　　　　Equally　prominent　in　Adam　Smith　is　his　individualism；　his　complete　and　unhesitating　trust　in　individual　self…interest。　He　was　the　first　to　appeal　to　self…interest　as　a　great　bond　of　society。　As　a　keen　observer；　he　could　point　to　certain　facts；　which　seemed　to　bear　out　his　creed。　If　we　once　grant　the　principle　of　the　division　of　labour；　then　it　follows　that　one　man　can　live　only　by　finding　out　what　other　men　want；　it　is　on　this　fact；　for　instance；　that　the　food　supply　of　London　depends。　This　is　the　basis　of　the　doctrine　of　laisser　faire。　It　implies　competition；　which　would　result；　so　Adam　Smith　believed；　in　men's　wants　being　supplied　at　a　minimum　of　cost。　In　upholding　competition　he　was　radically　opposed　to　the　older　writers；　who　thought　it　a　hateful　thing；　but　his　conclusion　was　quite　true。　Again　it　implies　the　best　possible　distribution　of　industry；　for　under　a　system　of　free　competition；　every　man　will　carry　on　his　trade　in　the　locality　most　suitable　for　it。　　　　　But　the　principle　of　laisser　faire　breaks　down　in　certain　points　not　recognised　by　Adam　Smith。　It　fails；　for　instance；　in　assuming　that　it　is　the　interest　of　the　producer　to　supply　the　wants　of　the　consumer　in　the　best　possible　manner；　that　it　is　the　interest　of　the　producer　to　manufacture　honest　wares。　It　is　quite　true　that　this　is　his　interest；　where　the　trade　is　an　old…established　one　and　has　a　reputation　to　maintain；　or　where　the　consumer　is　intelligent　enough　to　discover　whether　a　commodity　is　genuine　or　not。　But　these　conditions　exist　only　to　a　small　extent　in　modern　commerce。　The　trade　of　the　present　day　is　principally　carried　on　with　borrowed　capital；　and　it　may　be　a　clever　man's　interest　to　sell　as　large　a　quantity　of　goods　as　possible　in　a　few　years　and　then　throw　up　his　business。　Thus　the　interests　of　producer　and　consumer　conflict；　and　it　has　been　found　necessary　to　pass　Adulteration　Acts；　which　recognise　the　non…identity　of　interest　of　seller　and　buyer。　It　was　argued；　indeed；　in　Parliament；　when　these　acts　were　proposed；　that　consumers　ought　to　take　care　of　themselves；　but　the　consumers　are　far　too　ignorant　to　do　so；　especially　the　poor　who　are　the　great　consumers　of　the　articles　protected　against　adulteration。　Adam　Smith；　moreover；　could　not　foresee　that　internal　free　trade　might　result　in　natural　monopolies。　A　conspicuous　feature　of　our　times　is　the　concentration　of　certain　industries　in　the　hands　of　a　few　great　capitalists；　especially　in　America；　where　such　rings　actually　dictate　the　prices　of　the　market。　Eighty…five　per　cent。　of　the　Pennsylvania　coal…mines；　for　instance；　are　in　the　hands　of　six　or　seven　companies　who　act　in　combination。　The　easiest　remedy　for　such　monopolies　would　be　international　free　trade；　with　international　competition　few　could　be　maintained。　Finally；　in　the　distribution　of　wealth　there　must　necessarily　be　a　permanent　antagonism　of　interests。　Adam　Smith　himself　saw　this；　when　he　said　that　the　rate　of　wages　depended　on　contracts　between　two　parties　whose　interests　were　not　identical。　This　being　granted；　we　see　that　in　distribution　the　'harmony'　of　the　individual　and　the　public　good　is　a　figment。　At　the　present　day　each　class　of　workmen　cares　only　for　the　wages　of　its　own　members。　Hence　the　complete　breakdown　of　the　laisser　faire　system　in　the　question　of　wages。　We　have　been　driven　to　attempt　the　establishment　of　Boards　of　Conciliation　all　over　the　country；　thus　virtually　surrendering　the　principle。　Nor　is　it　true　that　self…interest　tends　to　supply　all　our　wants；　some　of　our　best　institutions；　such　as　hospitals；　owe　their　existence　to　altruistic　sentiment。　These　antagonisms　were　to　come　out　more　strongly　than　ever　after　Adam　Smith's　time。　There　were　dark　patches　even　in　his　age；　but　we　now　approach　a　darker　period…a　period　as　disastrous　and　as　terrible　as　any　through　which　a　nation　ever　passed；　disastrous　and　terrible；　because；　side　by　side　with　a　great　increase　of　wealth　was　seen　an　enormous　increase　of　pauperism；　and　production　on　a　vast　scale；　the　result　of　free　competition；　led　to　a　rapid　alienation　of　classes　and　to　the　degradation　of　a　large　body　of　producers。

VIII。　The　Chief　Features　of　the　Revolution

　　　　The　essence　of　the　industrial　Revolution　is　the　substitution　of　competition　for　the　medieval　regulations　which　had　previously　controlled　the　production　and　distribution　of　wealth。　On　this　account　it。　IS　not　only　one　of　the　most　important　facts　of　English　history；　but　Europe　owes　to　it　the　growth　of　two　great　systems　of　thought　…　Economic　Science；　and　its　antithesis；　Socialism。　The　development　of　Economic　Science　in　England　has　four　chief　landmarks；　each　connected　with　the　name　of　one　of　the　four　great　English　economists。　The　first　is　the　publication　of　Adam　Smith's　Wealth　of　Nations　in　1776；　in　which　he　investigated　the　causes　of　wealth　and　aimed　at　the　substitution　of　industrial　freedom　for　a　system　of　restriction。　The　production　of　wealth；　not　the　welfare　of　man；　was　what　Adam　Smith　had　primarily　before　his　mind's　eye；　in　his　own　words；　'the　great　object　of　the　Political　Economy　of　every　country　is　to　increase　the　riches　and　power　of　that　country。'　His　great　book　appeared　on　the　eve　of　the　industrial　Revolution。　A　second　stage　in　the　growth　of　the　science　is　marked　by　Malthus's　Essay　on　Population；　published　in　1798；　which　may　be　considered　the　product　of　that　revolution；　then　already　in　full　swing。　Adam　Smith　had　concentrated　all　his　attention　on　a　large　production；　Malthus　directed　his　inquiries；　not　to　the　causes　of　wealth　but　to　the　causes　of　poverty；　and　found　them　in　his　theory　of　population。　A　third　stage　is　marked　by　Ricardo's　Principles　of　Political　Economy　and　Taxation；　which　appeared　in　1817；　and　in　which　Ricardo　sought　to　ascertain　the　laws　of　the　distribution　of　wealth。　Adam　Smith　had　shown　how　wealth　could　be　produced　under　a　system　of　industrial　freedom；　Ricardo　showed　how　wealth　is　distributed　under　such　a　system；　a　problem　which　could　not　have　occurred　to　any　one　before　his　time。　The　fourth　stage　is　marked　by　John　Stuart　Mill's　Principles　of　Political　Economy；　published　in　1848。　Mill　himself　asserted　that　'the　chief　merit　of　his　treatise'　was　the　distinction　drawn　between　the　laws　of　production　and　those　of　distribution；　and　the　problem　he　tried　to　solve　was；　how　wealth　ought　to　be　distributed。　A　great　advance　was　made　by　Mill's　attempt　to　show　what　was　and　what　was　not　inevitable　under　a　system　of　free　competition。　In　it　we　see　the　influence　which　the　rival　system　of　Socialism　was　already　beginning　to　exercise　upon　the　economists。　The　whole　spirit　of　Mill's　book　is　quite　different　from　that　of　any　economic　works　which　had　up　to　his　time　been　written　in　England。　Though　a　re…statement　of　Ricardo's　system；　it　contained　the　admission　that　the　distribution　of　wealth　is　the　result　of　'particular　social　arrangements；'　and　it　recognised　that　competition　alone　is　not　a　satisfactory　basis　of　society。　　　　　Competition；　heralded　by　Adam　Smith；　and　taken　for　granted　by　Ricardo　and　Mill；　is　still　the　dominant　idea　of　our　time；　though　since　the　publication　of　the　Origin　of　Species；　we　hear　more　of　it　under　the　name　of　the　'struggle　for　existence。'　I　wish　here　to　notice　the　fallacies　involved　in　the　current　arguments　on　this　subject。　In　the　first　place　it　is　assumed　that　all　competition　is　a　competition　for　existence。　This　is　not　true。　There　is　a　great　difference　between　a　struggle　for　mere　existence　and　a　struggle　for　a　particular　kind　of　existence。　For　instance；　twelve　men　are　struggling　for　employment　in　a　trade　where　there　is　only　room　for　eight；　four　are　driven　out　of　that　trade；　but　they　are　not　trampled　out　of　existence。　A　good　deal　of　competition　merely　decides　what　kind　of　work　a　man　is　to　do；　though　of　course　when　a　man　can　only　do　one　kind　of　work；　it　may　easily　become　a　struggle　for　bare　life。　It　is　next　assumed　that　this　struggle　for　existence　is　a　law　of　nature；　and　that　therefore　all　human　interference　with　it　is　wrong。　To　that　I　answer　that　the　whole　meaning　of　civilisation　is　interference　with　this　brute　struggle。　We　intend　to　modify　the　violence　of　the　fight；　and　to　prevent　the　weak　being　trampled　under　foot。　　　　　Competition；　no　doubt；　has　its　uses。　Without　competition　no　progress　would　be　possible；　for　progress　comes　chiefly　from　without；　it　is　external　pressure　which　forces　men　to　exert　themselves。　Socialists；　however；　maintain　that　this　advantage　is　gained　at　the　expense　of　an　enormous　waste　of　human　life　and　labour；　which　might　be　avoided　by　regulation。　But　her